Galileo Galilei

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Galileo Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564–1682) was an Italian astronomer, physicist, and engineer who was sometimes referred to as a polymath from Pisa.

Galileo has been dubbed the "father of modern astronomy," the "father of modern science" and "the father of modern science," and the "father of modern science" and "worker of nanoscience" and "thermometry" inventing the thermoscope and other military compasses, and using the telescope for scientific observations of celestial objects.

The telescopic report of Venus' phases, the detection of Saturn's rings, and the analysis of sunspots are among his contributions to astronomy. Galileo's promotion of heliocentrism and Copernicanism was controversial during his lifetime, when the majority of people adhered to geocentric models such as the Tychonic system.

He was met with skepticism from astronomers who doubted heliocentrism because of the absence of an observed stellar parallax.

The Roman Inquisition in 1615 concluded that heliocentrism was "foolish and absurd in philosophy, and in some respects, explicitly contradicts Holy Scripture."Galileo later defended his position in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632), which appeared to criticize Pope Urban VIII and alienated him and the Jesuits, who had both endorsed Galileo up to this point.

The Inquisition found him "strongly suspicious of heresy" and coerced to repent.

He lived the remainder of his life under house arrest for the remainder of his life.

He wrote Two New Sciences, a book in which he recapped his research on the two sciences that has been neglected for many years.

Early life and family

Galileo was born in Pisa (then part of the Duchy of Florence), Italy, on February 1564, the first of six children of Vincenzo Galilei, a lutenist, composer, and music theorist, and Giulia Ammannati, who had married in 1562. Galileo himself was an accomplished lutenist, and he may have developed skepticism against established power early in his father's life.

Infancy, three of Galileo's five siblings survived. Michelangelo (or Michelagnolo), the youngest of Galileo's family, became a lutenist and composer who added to Galileo's financial burdens for the remainder of his life. Michelangelo was unable to provide his fair share of his father's promised dowries to their brothers-in-law, who would later seek legal remedies for payments due to the divorce. Michelangelo will also have to borrow funds from Galileo to finance his artistic pursuits and excursions. Galileo's earlier desire to produce inventions that would bring him additional funds may have influenced his early desire to create inventions that would bring him more money.

When Galileo Galileo Galileo Galilei was eight years old, his family migrated to Florence, but Muzio Tedaldi's care for two years. Galileo tennished Pisa to join his family in Florence, but he was still under Jacopo Borghini's tutelage when he was ten years old. He was educated, particularly logic, from 1575 to 1578 in the Vallombrosa Abbey, about 30 kilometers southeast of Florence, about 30 km southeast of Florence.

Galileo used to refer to himself only by his given name. Surnames were unobtainable in Italy at the time, and his given name had the same root as his sometimes-family name, Galilei. Both his name and family name derive from Galileo Bonaiuti, a leading physician, researcher, and politician in Florence in the 15th century. Galileo Bonaiuti was buried in Florence's Basilica of Santa Croce, where Galileo Galileo Galilei was buried about 200 years ago.

When he did refer to himself by more than one name, it was often as Galileo Galileo Linceo, a nodo of Italy's highest pro-science group. Following the parents' surname, it was common for mid-sixteenth-century Tuscan families to name the eldest son after the parents' surname. Galileo Galilei was therefore not named after his ancestor, Galileo Bonaiuti. The Italian male given the name "Galileo" (and in future the surname "Galilei") derives from the Latin "Galilaeus," referring to Galilee, a Biblically important area in Northern Israel. Galilean (Greek, Latin Galilaeus, Italian Galileo) was used in antiquity (especially by emperor Julian) to refer to Christ and his followers.

Galileo's name and surname were supposed to be the subject of a famous joke. One of Galileo's adversaries, the Dominican priest Tommaso Caccini, delivered a controversial and influential sermon against Galileo in 1614. "Why stand ye gazing into heaven?" He quoted Acts 1:11. (In the Latin version of Vulgate): Vii Galilaei, who was on the verge of discovering statis aspicientes in caelum? ) o p>>>

Despite being a genuinely holy Roman Catholic, Galileo's three children were kept out of wedlock with Marina Gamba. They had two children, Virginia (born 1600) and Livia (born 1601), as well as Vincenzo (born 1606).

Galileo thought the girls unmarriageable, if not posing barriers of prohibitively costly assistance or dowries, which would have been similar to Galileo's previous financial difficulties with two of his sisters. The only viable alternative was the religious life. Both girls were accepted by the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri and remained there for the remainder of their lives.

On entering the convent, Virginia took the name Maria Celeste. Galileo was buried in Florence on April 2nd, 1634, and she is buried with Galileo. Livia went by the name Sister Arcangela and was seriously ill for the bulk of her life. Vincenzo was later recognized as the legitimate heir of Galileo and married Sestilia Bocchineri.

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Career as a scientist

Although Galileo regarded the priesthood as a young man, his father's insistence that he enroll in 1580 at the University of Pisa for a medical degree. Girolamo Borro and Francesco Buonamici of Florence's lectures inspired him. He noticed a swinging chandelier in 1581, when he was studying medicine, when air currents began to swing in larger and smaller arcs. He seemed, by comparison to his heartbeat, that the chandelier took the same amount of time to swing back and forth, no matter how far it was swinging. As he returned home, he assembled two pendulums of equal length and swung one with a big sweep and the other with a small sweep, and discovered they kept time together. It wasn't until Christiaan Huygens' work that a swinging pendulum's tautochrone characteristic was used to create a precise timepiece that was not until that time period was established. Galileo had intentionally kept away from mathematics, until a physician received a higher salary than a mathematician. However, after mistakenly attending a geometry lecture, he perplexed his reluctant father into studying mathematics and natural philosophy rather than medicine. He made a thermoscope, a forerunner of the thermometer, and published a small book on the construction of a hydrostatic balance he had invented in 1586 (which first attracted the scholarly world's attention). Galileo also studied disegno, a term that refers to fine art, and in 1588, he obtained the position of instructor in Florence's Accademia delle Disegno, emphasizing teaching methodology and chiaroscuro. In the same year, he delivered two lectures, On the Shape, Position, and Intention of Dante's Inferno, in an attempt to develop a realistic cosmological model of Dante's hell, which was on invitation by the Florentine Academy. Galileo acquired an aesthetic sensibility, being inspired by the city's artistic tradition and the Renaissance artists' work. He began a lifelong collaboration with Florentine painter Cigoli while a student at the Accademia.

He was appointed to Pisa's chair of mathematics in 1589. Michelagnolo, his father, died in 1591 and he was entrusted with the care of his younger brother Michelagnolo. He migrated to Padua University in 1592, where he taught geometry, mechanics, and astronomy until 1610. Galileo made significant contributions in both pure fundamental science (for example, kinematics of motion and astronomy) and applied science (for example, strength of materials and pioneering the telescope). Among his numerous interests was the study of astrology, which at the time was a branch of mathematics and astronomy.

The supernova of 1572 had been witnessed by Tycho Brahe and others. To Galileo's notice, Ottavio Brenzoni's letter from January 1505 to Galileo brought the 1572 supernova and the less brilliant nova 1601 to Galileo. In 1604, Galileo observed and discussed Kepler's Supernova. Galileo figured that these new stars had no discernible diurnal parallax and had thus disproved Aristotelian belief in the immutability of the heavens.

Based solely on unverified accounts of Hans Lippershey's first practical telescope, which he attempted to patent in the Netherlands in 1608, Galileo made a telescope with a 3x magnification following the following year. He later produced updated versions that could reach 30x magnification. With a Galilean telescope, the observer could see magnified, upright photographs on the Earth — it was what is commonly known as a terrestrial telescope or a spyglass. He could also use it to observe the stars; for a time, he was one of the few people with telescopes that were strong enough for that purpose. He displayed one of his early telescopes, one of his early telescopes, on August 25, 1609, to Venetian legislators with a magnification of about 8 or 9. Galileo's telescopes were also a profitable sideline, as they were sold to retailers who found them useful both on sea and as commodities of trade. In a brief treatise named Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger), he published his first telescopic astronomical findings in March 1610.

Galileo's telescope was pointed at the Moon on November 30th, 1609. Galileo was the first person to observe the Moon through a telescope, although not the first one to observe it (English mathematician Thomas Harriot had done it four months before, but only saw a "strange spottedness") as a result of the uneven decline, despite not being the first to notice the difference in lunar mountains and craters. He also made topographical charts in his report, estimating the heights of the mountains. The Moon was not what was long thought to be a transparent and flawless sphere, as Aristotle explained, and it was not until this first "planet," a "eternal pearl," that would gracefully rise into the heavenly element, as proposed by Dante. Galileo is sometimes credited with the discovery of the lunar libration in latitude in 1632, but Thomas Harriot or William Gilbert may have done it before.

In one of his paintings, a friend of Galileo's, painter Cigoli, included a realistic representation of the Moon, although the observer most likely used his own telescope to make the observation.

Galileo observed with his telescope on January 7th, 1610, all near to Jupiter and all visible due to its smallness," at the time, all close to Jupiter and lying on a straight line across it. The positions of these "stars" relative to Jupiter were shifting in a way that would have been inexplicable if they had really been fixed stars, according to observations on subsequent nights. Galileo announced that one of them had vanished on January tenacious, owing to its being obscured behind Jupiter. He discovered three of Jupiter's four major moons within a few days: he had guessed that they were orbiting Jupiter: he had discovered three of Jupiter's four major moons. He found the fourth on January 13th. Galileo selected four Medicean stars in honor of his forthcoming patron, Cosimo II de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Cosimo's three brothers. Later astronomers, on the other hand, renamed them Galilean satellites in honor of their finder. These satellites were first identified by Simon Marius on January 8th, 1610, and they are now called Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto, the names given by Marius in his Mundus Iovialis published in 1614.

Galileo's observations of Jupiter's satellites caused a revolution in astronomy: a planet with smaller planets orbiting the Earth did not follow Aristotelian cosmology's rules, which stated that all heavenly bodies should circle the Earth, although some astronomers and scholars had doubted that Galileo could have found such a thing. When he visited Rome in 1611, Christopher Clavius' observatory confirmed his findings, and he received a hero's welcome. Galileo continued to monitor the satellites over the next eighteen months, and by mid-1611, he had obtained remarkably accurate estimates for their periods, something Johannes Kepler had deemed impossible.

Venus has a complete sequence of phases similar to that of the Moon, beginning in September 1610. Since Venus orbits the Sun's illuminated hemisphere was on the opposite side of the Sun and away from the Earth when it was on the Earth's side, the heliocentric model of the Solar System developed by Nicolaus Copernicus predicted that all phases would be visible. It was impossible for any of the planet's orbits to meet the Sun's spherical shell in Ptolemy's geocentric model. Venus' orbit had been on the Sun's near side of the Sun, where it could only display crescent and new phases. It was also possible to position it entirely on the Sun's far side of the Sun, where it would only show gibbous and full phases. The Ptolemaic model became unprofitable following Galileo's telescopic observations of Venus' crescent, gibbous, and complete phases. The overwhelming number of astronomers converted to one of the Tychonic, Capellan, and Extended Capellan designs in the early 17th century, many with or without a daily rotating Earth. These four people described Venus's phases without having to worry about complete heliocentrism's forecast of stellar parallax. Galileo's discovery of the phases of Venus was his most empirically relevant contribution to the two-stage transition from full geocentrism to full heliocentrism via geo-heliocentrism.

Galileo also observed Saturn in 1610 and at first mistook their rings for planets, assuming it was a three-bodied system. Saturn's rings were directly oriented at Earth when he visited the planet later, leading him to believe that two of the bodies had dissipated. When he observed the planet in 1616, the rings were revived, confusing him further.

In 1612, Galileo Galileo first noticed the planet Neptune. It appears in his notebooks that he is one of many unnoticeable dim stars. He didn't know it was a planet, but he did note the direction it was heading relative to the stars before losing track of it.

Galileo's sunspots were collected by naked-eye and telescopic measurements. Their existence revealed yet more difficulties with the unchanging perfection of the heavens as envisioned in classical Aristotelian celestial physics. An apparent annual variation in their trajectories, as well as Francesco Sizzi and others in 1612–1613, was a convincing argument against both the Ptolemaic system and Tycho Brahe's geocentric system. Galileo and the Jesuit Christoph Scheiner fell in a long and bitter feud over who claimed priority in the discovery of sunspots, which in their interpretation, led to a long and bitter feud. Mark Welser, who Scheiner had revealed his findings and who pleaded for his opinion, was in the middle, and he asked Galileo for his opinion. Both of them were unaware of Johannes Fabricius' earlier observation and publication of sunspots.

Galileo observed the Milky Way, which had been thought to be nebulous, and discovered it to be a slew of stars packed so densely that they appeared from Earth to clouds. Many other celebrities were too far away for them to be visible with the naked eye. In Ursa Major, he spotted the double star Mizar.

Galileo's Starry Messenger said that stars appeared in the Starry Messenger as merely blazes of light, practically unchanged in appearance by the telescope, and compared them to planets, which the telescope revealed to be discs. The telescope revealed the shapes of both stars and planets in his Sunspot Letters, but he announced it just after. He went on to say that telescopes exhibited the roundness of stars and that stars seen through the telescope measured a few seconds of arc in diameter. He also invented a device for determining the apparent size of a star without using a telescope. As described in his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, his technique was to tie a thin rope around the actor's line of sight and determine the maximum distance from which it would wholly obscure the actor. From his measurements of this distance and the width of the cord, he could determine the angle subtended by the actor at his viewing position.

He reported that he had found the apparent diameter of a star of first magnitude to be no more than 5 arc seconds, and that of one of sixth magnitude's magnitudes to be about 5/6 arcseconds. Galileo, like most astronomers of his day, was unaware that the apparent stars he measured were spurious, owing to diffraction and atmospheric distortion, and did not accurately reflect the true sizes of stars. Galileo's figures were, on the contrary, much smaller than previous estimates of the apparent sizes of the brightest celebrities, such as those produced by Brahe, and Galileo was able to defuse anti-Copernican claims that these actors would have to be extraordinarily large for their annual parallaxes to be undetectable. Simon Marius, Giovanni Battista Riccioli, and Martinus Hortensius all took similar measurements of stars, but Marius and Riccioli decided that the smaller sizes were not large enough to defy Tycho's argument.

Cardinal Bellarmine wrote in 1615 that the Copernican system could not be saved without "a convincing physical demonstration" that the sun does not circle the earth but rather the earth circles the sun. Galileo wanted to see such evidence based on his tide theory. This belief was so significant to him that he intended to call his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems the Dialogue on the Ebb and Flow of the Sea. The Inquisition ordered that the reference to tides be stripped from the title.

The tides in Galileo were caused by the sluggish back and forth of water in the seas as a point on the Earth's surface sped up and slowed down as a result of the Earth's rotation on its axis and the Sun's revolution. In 1616, he published his first account of the tides, addressed to Cardinal Orsini. His research provided the first insight into the importance of ocean basins in terms of their size and timing of tides; for example, he correctly accounted for the negligible tides halfway along the Adriatic Sea relative to those at the beginning. However, his theory was not a failure as a general account of tide causes.

There will only be one high tide per day if this theory were correct. Galileo and his contemporaries were aware of the inadequacy because there are two daily high tides at Venice rather than one, about 12 hours apart. Galileo explained this anomaly as a result of several secondary causes, including the appearance of the sea, the depth, and other factors. Albert Einstein later stated that Galileo invented his "fascinating arguments" and accepted them uncritically out of a search for physical proof of Earth movement. Galileo also dismissed the suggestion that the Moon caused the tides, which was debunked by antiquity and contemporary Johannes Kepler—Galileo also expressed no concern in Kepler's elliptical orbits of the planets. Galileo continued to promote his theory of tides, considering that it was the most concrete evidence of Earth's motion.

Galileo became embroiled in a debate with Father Orazio Grassi, a mathematics professor at the Jesuit Collegio Romano, in 1619. It started off as a debate over comets' origins, but by the time Galileo's last salvo in the conflict, it had erupted into a much bigger debate about the very essence of science itself. Galileo's book's title page introduces him as a scholar and "Matematico Primario" of the Grand Duke of Tuscany.

Because The Assayer has such a wealth of Galileo's theories on how science should be carried out, it has been referred to as his scientific manifesto. Father Grassi had anonymously published An Astronomical Disputation pamphlet on the Three Comets of the Year 1618, which addressed the origins of a comet that had appeared late in November of the previous year. The comet was described by Grassi as a fiery body that had travelled along a narrow strip of a great circle at a set distance from the Earth, and because it moved in the atmosphere at a faster rate than the Moon, it would have been farther away than the Moon.

In a subsequent article, Discourse on Comets, written by Grassi himself, one of Galileo's disciples, was attacked, but it was not written by him. Galileo and Guiducci had no definite idea of their own on comets, although they did have some preliminary conclusions that are now known to be inaccurate. (Attentionally, Tycho Brahe's correct approach to comet analysis had been suggested at the time.) Galileo and Guiducci's Discourse gratuitously mocked Jesuit Christoph Scheiner, as well as various uncomplimentary remarks about the Collegio Romano professors were scattered throughout the course. The Jesuits were promptly dismissed, and Grassi followed with a polemical tract of his own, The Astronomical and Philosophical Balance, attributed to Lothario Sigensano, who ostensibly being one of his own students.

Galileo's traumatic reaction to the Astronomical Balance was the Assayer. It has been widely regarded as a masterpiece of polemical literature, in which "Sarsi's" arguments are treated to withering scorn. It was received with acclaim, and particularly pleased the new pope, Urban VIII, to whom it had been dedicated. Barberini, the future Urban VIII of Rome, had fallen in touch with Galileo and the Lincean Academy in the last decade.

Galileo's feud with Grassi permanently alienated several Jesuits, and Galileo and his allies were convinced that they were responsible for triggering his later condemnation, but supporting evidence for this is not conclusive.

The overwhelming number of educated people responded to Aristotelian geocentric views, such as Galileo's conflict with the Church, or Tycho Brahe's new method of mixing geocentrism with heliocentrism at a time of Galileo's conflict with the Church. The opposition to heliocentrism and Galileo's papers on it combined religious and scientific objections. Ancestors of heliocentrism reacted angrily in biblical passages that imply the Earth's solid nature. Brahe, a scientist who claimed that heliocentrism was real, an annual stellar parallax should be observed, although no one was present at the time. Since the actors were so far apart, Aristarchus and Copernicus had correctly announced that parody was negligible. Tycho, on the other hand, replied that since stars seem to have measurable angular size, they could be much larger than the Sun, and that their apparent size is due to their physical size. In fact, without modern telescopes, it is not possible to determine the physical size of distant stars.

Galileo defended heliocentrism based on his astronomical findings of 1609. The Grand Duchess Christina of Florence confronted Benedetto Castelli, one of Galileo's mates and followers, with Biblical objections to the Earth's movement in December 1613. Galileo wrote a letter to Castelli, explaining that heliocentrism was not contrary to biblical texts and that the Bible was the only authority on faith and morals, not science. This letter was not released, but it was widely distributed. Galileo's letter to Christina, two years ago, expanded his arguments from eight pages to forty pages.

Galileo's heliocentrism papers had been submitted to the Roman Inquisition by 1615 by Father Niccol Lorini, who said that Galileo and his followers were attempting to reinterpret the Bible, a breach of the Council of Trent and looked dangerously like Protestantism. Lorini referred to Galileo's letter to Castelli in a specific way. Galileo went to Rome to defend himself and his ideas. Monsignor Francesco Ingoli initiated a debate with Galileo at the start of 1616, giving him an essay opposing the Copernican system. Galileo later said that this essay may have been instrumental in the reaction against Copernicanism that followed. Ingoli may have been hired by the Inquisition to write an expert opinion on the matter, with the essay providing the basis for the Inquisition's conduct. The essay was based on eighteen physical and mathematical arguments against heliocentrism. It derived primarily from Tycho Brahe's arguments, including the fact that heliocentrism would necessitate the actors because they appeared to be much larger than the Sun. Four theological arguments were also included in the paper, but Ingoli suggested Galileo focus on the physical and mathematical arguments, but not Galileo's biblical theories.

An Inquisitorial commission in February 1616 declared heliocentrism to be "foolish and absurd in philosophy" and officially heretical because it explicitly contradicts Holy Scripture in several ways. The Inquisition found that the belief in the Earth's movement "receives the same decision in philosophy and... in terms of theological truth, it is at least erroneous in faith." Pope Paul V ordered Cardinal Bellarmine to Galileo and order him not to abandon heliocentrism. Galileo was summoned to Bellarmine's home on February 26th and ordered "to abandon completely... the belief that the sun remains still at the center of the world and the Earth changes," and that one-forth not to hold, teach, or defend it in any way whatsoever, whether or in writing." Copernicus's De Revolutionibus and other heliocentric works were forbidden until corrected by the Congregation of the Index.

Galileo stayed away from the scandal for the next decade. He revived his attempt to write a book on the subject, after being encouraged by Cardinal Maffeo Barberini's election as Pope Urban VIII in 1623. Barberini, a Galileoan friend and admirer, had protested Galileo's admonition in 1616. Galileo's final book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was published in 1632 with official permission from the Inquisition and papal permission.

Earlier, Pope Urban VIII had specifically asked Galileo to testify and against heliocentrism in the book and not to promote heliocentrism. Simplicio, the promoter of the Aristotelian geocentric view in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was often trapped in his own mistakes, and occasionally came across as a fool. Despite Galileo's insining that the character is named after a well-known Aristotelian scholar (Simplicio in Latin, "Simplicio" in Italian), the term "Simplicio" in Italian also refers to a "simplicio" in Italian, and "simplicio" in Italian). Simplicio's Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems appears as an advocacy book: an attack on Aristotelian geocentrism and defense of Copernican theory.

Galileo did not act out of jealousy and was blindsided by his book's reaction. However, the Pope did not take the unpopular public ridicule lightly, nor did Copernican advocacy.

Galileo had alienated one of his most devoted supporters, the Pope, and had been summoned to Rome in September 1632 to defend his writings. He finally arrived in February 1633 and was arrested in February 1633 before inquisitor Vincenzo Maculani was arrested. Galileo argued steadfastly that he had faithfully kept his pledge not to hold any of the condemned views throughout his appeal, and at first denied even defending them. However, he was eventually forced to admit that, contrary to his true intention, a reader of his Dialogue may have gotten the impression that it was supposed to be a Copernicanism defense. Despite the threat, Galileo's rather implausible denial that he ever held Copernican views after 1616 or he had intended to protect them in the Dialogue, his final interrogation in July 1633, ended with him being threatened with torture if he did not tell the truth.

It was in three essential parts:

Galileo allegedly muttered the rebellious word "And yet it moves" after refining his belief that the Earth revolves around the Sun. A 1640s painting by Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, a Spanish painter, or an artist of his school, whose name was withheld until reconstruction work in 1911, depicts an imprisoned Galileo reportedly gazing at the words "E pur si muove" written on the wall of his dungeon. The earliest recorded record of the legend dates back to a century after his demise. Based on the painting, Stillman Drake wrote: "There is no doubt now that the key words were already attributed to Galileo before his death." However, an extensive inquiry by astrophysicist Mario Livio has revealed that the painting is most likely a recreation of a 1837 painting by Flemish painter Roman-Eugene Van Maldeghem.

Galileo was allowed to return to his villa in Arcetri near Florence in 1634, where he lived part of his life under house arrest, after a period with the tolerant Ascanio Piccolomini (the Archbishop of Siena). Galileo was ordered to read the Seven Penitent Psalms every week for the next three years. However, Maria Celeste, his daughter, relieved him of the burden after he obtained ecclesiastical permission to take it upon herself.

It was during Galileo's house arrest that he devoted his time to Two New Sciences, one of his finest creations. He recapped work he had done forty years ago on the two sciences that were then called kinematics and strength of materials, which was published in Holland to prevent the censorship. Albert Einstein praised this book highly. Galileo has been dubbed the "father of modern physics" as a result of his research. In 1638, he went completely blind and was suffering from a painful hernia and insomnia, so he was allowed to fly to Florence for medical assistance.

Dava Sobel claims that prior to Galileo's 1633 trial and decision for Heresy, Pope Urban VIII had been preoccupied with legal intrigue and state issues, and that he had begun to fear persecution or dangers to his own life. Sobel argues that the Galileo issue was presented to the pope by legal insiders and opponents of Galileo. Urban responded to Galileo out of rage and fear after being accused of negligence in helping the church. Galileo and his findings are represented in new scientific and social contexts, according to Mario Livio. In particular, he claims that the Galileo affair has its counterpart in science denial.

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