Thomas Henry Huxley

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Thomas Henry Huxley, born in 1825 to 1895, was an English biologist and anthropologist specialising in comparative anatomy.

"Darwin's Bulldog" is a fictionalized version of Darwin's evolutionary theory, although historians believe that the debate itself was a later fabrication.

Huxley had intended to leave Oxford on the previous day, but after a meeting with Robert Chambers, the author of Vestiges, he changed his mind and decided to attend the discussion.

Richard Owen coached Wilberforce, against whom Huxley also discussed whether humans were closely related to apes. Huxley was reluctant to accept some of Darwin's theories, such as gradualism, and was unconvinced about natural selection, but despite this, he was still committed to Darwin's public support for Darwin.

He fought against the more radical interpretations of religious history, and was instrumental in the establishment of scientific education in the United Kingdom. Huxley first coined the word in 1869, developing "agnosticism" in 1889 to frame the truth of allegations in terms of what is knowable and what is not.

In fact, Huxley states thatgnosticism is not a creed, but a strategy whose root is contained in the strict application of a single principle: the basic axiom of modern science. In matters of the intellect, follow your reason as far as it will take you, without regard to any other consideration... Do not pretend that conclusions are correct because they are not demonstrated or demonstrable.

(See Thomas Henry Huxley and agnosticism) continue to use the word to this day (see Thomas Henry Huxley and agnosticism).

Huxley's skepticism was influenced by Kantian's views on human behavior and the ability to rely on scientific facts rather than belief systems.

He was perhaps the best comparative anatomist of the late nineteenth century.

He worked on invertebrates, thereby establishing links between groups that were previously unknown.

He later worked on vertebrates, focusing on the relationship between apes and humans.

He found that birds evolved from small carnivorous dinosaurs, which is widely accepted today. His energetic and tumultuous contributions to evolution have influenced this fine anatomical research, as well as his extensive public policy on scientific education, which has had major impacts on British society and elsewhere.

Huxley's 1893 Romanes Lecture, "Evolution and Ethics," is particularly influential in China; the Chinese translation of Huxley's lecture also changed the Chinese translation of Darwin's Origin of Species.

Early life

Thomas Henry Huxley was born in Ealing, which was then a village in Middlesex. He was George Huxley and Rachel Withers' second youngest child. His parents, who were members of the Church of England, sympathized with nonconformists. Huxley, like other British scientists of the nineteenth century, such as Alfred Russel Wallace, was born in a literate middle-class family that had been through difficult times. His father was a mathematics tutor at Great Ealing School until it closed, putting the family in financial danger. Thomas dropped out of school at the age of ten after just two years of formal education.

Despite this poor start, Huxley was determined to learn himself. He was one of the nineteenth century's greatest autodidacts. Thomas Carlyle, James Hutton's Geology, and Hamilton's Logic were among his first reads. He learned himself German in his youth, later becoming fluent and useful by Charles Darwin as a scientist in German. He learned Latin and Greek enough Greek to read Aristotle in the original.

He made himself an expert invertebrates and later vertebrates, a young adult, who were all self-taught. He was an illustrator and created some of the illustrations for his book on marine invertebrates. His theology in later debates and writing on science and religion was more convincing than that of his clerical opponents. Huxley, a ten-year-old boy who left school at ten, became one of Britain's most knowledgeable men.

He was apprenticed for short stretches to various medical specialists, including 13 to John Cooke, a brother-in-law who passed him on to Thomas Chandler, who was noted for his experiments using mesmerism for medical use. Chandler's session took place in Rotherhithe, London, amid the Dickensian poor's squalor. Here Thomas would have suffered with hunger, violence, and epidemic disease. Next, his older sister's husband, John Salt, was taken on by another brother-in-law. Huxley, a cut-price anatomy academy whose founder, Marshall Hall, discovered the reflex arc, entered Sydenham College (behind University College Hospital). Huxley's reading program continued all the time, making up for his lack of formal education.

Huxley's A year later, after being boosted by good results and a silver medal in the Apothecaries' annual competition, he was accepted to study at Charing Cross Hospital, where he received a small scholarship. Thomas Wharton Jones, Professor of Ophthalmic Medicine and Surgery at University College London, taught him at Charing Cross. When Knox bought cadavers from Burke and Hare, Jones was Robert Knox's assistant. The teenage Wharton Jones, a young warlock who appeared as a go-between, was cleared of murder but felt it was best to leave Scotland. He was a fine teacher, up-to-date in physiology, and also an ophthalmic surgeon. Huxley's first scientific paper demonstrating the existence of a hitherto unidentified layer in the inner sheath of hairs in 1845, under Wharton Jones' direction, was published in 1845, a layer that has been known since Huxley's layer. No doubt remembering this, as well as knowing his merits, Huxley arranged a pension for his old tutor later in life.

He attained his First M.B. at the age of twenty. Students at the University of London were given a gold medal for anatomy and physiology. However, he did not appear in the final (Second M.B.) exams and, as a result, did not have a university degree. His apprenticeships and exam results provided a solid foundation for his application to the Royal Navy.

Later life

Huxley effectively resigned from the navy by refusing to return to active service, and in July 1854, he became Professor of Natural History at the Royal School of Mines and naturalist to the British Geological Survey. In addition, he served as Full Professor at the Royal Institution 1855–67; Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons 1863–1870; President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science 1869–1880; Inspector of Fisheries 1881–85; and President of the Marine Biological Association 1884-1890. In 1869, he was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society.

Huxley's three-one years as the Royal School of Mines' chair of natural history included research on vertebrate palaeontology and several initiatives to advance the position of science in British life. Huxley died in 1885 after a bout of depressive illness that began in 1884. In mid-term, the Inspectorship of Fisheries, and his chair resigned, as soon as he properly could) and took six months of leave. His pension was a decent £1200 per year.

Huxley's London home, in which he wrote a few of his pieces, was located at 4 Marlborough Place, St John's Wood. In the early 1870s, the house was expanded to include a large drawing and dining room, where he held informal Sunday gatherings.

In 1890, he went from London to Eastbourne, where he had bought property on the Staveley Road,'Hodeslea,' where a house was built, 'Hodeslea' under his son-in-law F. Waller's supervision. Huxley edited the nine volumes of his Collected Essays here. Eugene Dubois' discovery in Java of Pithecanthropus erectus' remains (now known as Homo erectus) in 1894.

In 1895 in Eastbourne, he died of a heart attack (after contracting influenza and pneumonia) and was buried in London at East Finchley Cemetery. Although no invitations were sent out, two hundred people attended the funeral, including Joseph Dalton Hooker, William Henry Flower, Mulford B. Foster, Edwin Lankester, Joseph Lister, and, perhaps Henry James. The family plot was purchased on the death of his eldest son Noel, who died of scarlet fever in 1860; Huxley's Henrietta Anne Heathorn and his son Noel are also buried there.

Three daughters and three sons were born in Huxley, England.

Huxley was to some extent lured away from scientific study by the allegations of public service from 1870 to 2000. He served on eight Royal Commissions from 1862 to 1884. He was a Secretary of the Royal Society from 1871 to 1880, and from 1883 to 1885, he was president. He served as president of the Geological Society from 1868 to 1870. He was president of the British Association at Liverpool in 1870 and then elected as a member of the newly elected London School Board in the same year. He served as president of the Quekett Microscopical Club from 1877 to 1879. He was the most influential person among those who reformed the Royal Society, persuaded government of science, and introduced scientific education in British schools and universities. Science was mainly a gentleman's occupation before him; after him, science became a profession.

He was given the highest accolades since opening to British men of science. The Royal Society, which had voted him Fellow when he was 25 (1851), awarded him the Royal Medal a year earlier (1852), a year before Charles Darwin received the same award. He was the first biologist to be honoured. The Copley Medal in 1888 and the Darwin Medal in 1894 were among his honors; the Geological Society awarded him the Wollaston Medal in 1890, and the Linnean Society gave him the Linnean Medal in 1890. In the Life and Letters, there were numerous other elections and appointments to eminent scientific bodies; these and his numerous academic awards were listed. He turned down several other positions, including the Linacre chair in zoology at Oxford and University College's Mastership.

The King of Sweden created Huxley, Hooker, and Tyndall Knights of the Order of the Polar Star in 1873: they could wear the insignia but not use the term in Britain. Huxley's honorary memberships of foreign societies, research grants, and honorary doctorates from the United Kingdom and Germany have been collected. In 1892, he became a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.

He was given a pension by the state in honor of his numerous public services and was voted Privy Councillor in 1892.

Despite his many achievements, he was not given an award by the British state until late in life. He did better than Darwin in this regard, though he received no recognition from the state. (Darwin's proposed knighthood was rejected by ecclesiastical consultants, including Wilberforce): Perhaps Huxley had museified about his dislike of honours, or perhaps his numerous attacks on the fundamental assumptions of organized faith made enemies in the establishment; he had lively discussions with Benjamin Disraeli, William Ewart Gladstone and Arthur Balfour, but his friendship with Lord Salisbury was less than pleasant.

Huxley was the country's most effective advocate for over three decades, and for some Huxley was "the greatest advocate of science in the nineteenth century [for] the entire English-speaking world."

Though he had many admirers and disciples, his demise, as well as his death, left a few, leaving British zoology somewhat ineffective. He had influenced the careers and appointments of the next generation, whether directly or indirectly, but no one was of his stature. The death of Francis Balfour in 1882, just after he was appointed to a chair at Cambridge, was a tragedy. Huxley said he was "the only one who can do my work": the deaths of Balfour and W. K. Clifford were "the greatest science tragedies of our time."

Huxley's career as a palaeontologist began with a rather odd predilection for 'persistent forms,' in which he seemed to argue that evolution (in the sense of large new species of animals and plants) was rare or absent in the Phanerozoic. He used to push the origins of major groups, such as birds and mammals, back into the Palaeozoic period, as well as the assertion that no order of plants had ever gone extinct.

History of science has delved into this mysterious and somewhat unclear topic. Huxley was wrong to predict the absence of orders in the Phanerozoic as low as 7%, and he did not know the number of new orders that changed. Persistent characters sat quite comfortably next to Darwin's more flexible theories; despite his intelligence, Huxley took a long time to comprehend some of the evolutionary implications. Huxley's gradually moved away from this conservative style of thinking as his palaeontology knowledge expanded, and the discipline itself evolved.

Huxley's detailed anatomical research was, as always, first-rate and profitable. Huxley's work on fossil fish exemplifies his distinctive feature: although pre-Darwinian naturalists gathered, identified, and classified, his goal was mainly to determine groups' evolutionary relationships.

Both appendages are attached to the shoulder or pelvis by a single bone, such as coelacanths and lung fish. His fascination with these animals brought him close to the source of tetrapods, one of the most important vertebrate palaeontology fields.

The study of fossil reptiles resulted in him demonstrating the inherent similarity of birds and reptiles, which he exhibited under the name Sauropsida. His papers on Archaeopteryx and Bird origins were of utmost concern then and now are.

Huxley did not do much research on mammals, with one exception, because he was convincing the world that man was a primate and had descended from the same stock as the apes. In Yale's Peabody Museum, Huxley was shown the remarkable collection of fossil horses discovered by O. C. Marsh in Yale's Peabody Museum. Marsh, an Easterner, was America's first paleontologist, but also one who had ventured west into a hostile Indian territory in search of fossils, hunted buffalo, and found Red Cloud (in 1874). Marsh had made some remarkable finds, including the enormous Cretaceous aquatic bird Hesperornis and dinosaur footprints along the Connecticut River, but the horse fossils were truly unique. "The collection of fossils is the most beautiful thing I ever saw" after a week with Marsh and his fossils.

At that time, the Orohippus from the small four-toed forest to plants more like the modern horse was on display in the Eocene. As the number of teeth increased and the toes decreased, he could see that the teeth of a browser transformed into those of a grazer. All of these changes may be attributed to a general shift in habitat from wood to grassland. And, it's now known, that global temperature reduction was responsible for the deaths of large areas of North America from the Eocene to the Pleistocene: the ultimate causative agent was global temperature reduction (see Paleocene Thermal Maximum). Many others have weighed in on the evolution of the horse, and the overall look of the tree of descent is more like a bush than a straight line.

The horse series itself also stated that the process was gradual and that the modern horse's source was located in North America, not in Eurasia. If so, something must have happened to horses in North America, since no one was around when Europeans arrived. Huxley's experience with Marsh was enough for him to confirm Darwin's decay and tell the tale of the horse in his lecture series.

Marsh's and Huxley's conclusions were initially contradictory. Nevertheless, Marsh displayed Huxley's complete sequence of fossils. As Marsh explained it, Huxley "then told me that all this was new to him and that my facts showed the evolution of the horse beyond question," and that for the first time, an existing horse's direct line of descent was shown. With the kindness of true greatness, he gave up his own views in the face of new truth and derived my conclusions from his famous New York lecture on horses.

Educational influence

There were practically no degrees in British universities in the biological sciences and few subjects when Huxley was young. The majority of biologists of his day were either self-taught or obtained medical degrees. When he retired, there were established chairs in biological sciences at the majority of universities, and a general consensus on curricula was to be followed. Huxley was the single most influential person in this change.

The Royal School of Mines in the early 1870s in South Kensington grew to new quarters; eventually, it would become one of Imperial College London's constituent parts. Huxley's decision gave the possibility to laboratory work in biology education more prominence, an assumption that has been pushed in German universities. In the main, the technique was based on meticulously selected anatomy and depended on anatomy dissection, microscopy, museum specimens, and some elementary physiology at Foster's hands.

With Huxley lecturing at 9 a.m. and his demonstrators' supervision of lab work, the day will begin. The Huxley demonstrators were selected men, who went on to be the future of biology in the United Kingdom, disseminating Huxley's theories as well as their own. Michael Foster was Professor of Physiology at Cambridge University; Ray Lankester became Jodrell Professor of Zoology at University College London (1890–91), Director of the Natural History Museum (1898–1907); S.H. Vines became Professor of Botany at Cambridge; W.T. Hooker's replacement at Kew was thiselton-Dyer (he was already Hooker's son-in-law). T. Jeffery Parker became Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy at University College, Cardiff, and William Rutherford became Professor of Physiology at Edinburgh. William Flower, conservator to the Hunterian Museum and THH's assistant in several dissections, later became Sir William Flower, Hunterian Professor of Comparative Anatomy and, later, Director of the Natural History Museum. It's a remarkable list of disciples, particularly when compared to Owen who, who lived longer than Huxley, who left no followers at all. Owen has no one truth tells so strongly against him, as he has never taught one pupil or follower."

"The teaching of zoology by the use of particular animal species has sparked so much doubt among students, "Darwin's later works all concerned with living organisms, but our interest was with the dead, with bodies preserved, and cut into the most refined slices," Huxley's students were so much narrower than the man himself. In a word, E.W MacBride said, "Huxley...would continue investigating animals as physical structures rather than as living, mobile organisms." To put it simply, Huxley preferred to teach what he had actually seen with his own eyes.

This largely morphological analysis of comparative anatomy remained at the forefront of most biological education for more than a hundred years until the discovery of cell and molecular biology as well as an interest in evolutionary ecology prompted a fundamental change. The methods of the field naturalists who pioneered the theory of evolution (Darwin, Wallace, Fritz Müller, Henry Bates) were barely represented in Huxley's curriculum. An ecological investigation of life in its environment was virtually non-existent, and evolutionary or otherwise, a discount was made. In any of Huxley's exams, Michael Ruse makes no mention of evolution or Darwinism, and the lecture content is based on two complete sets of lecture notes.

Since Darwin, Wallace, and Bates did not have teaching positions at any stage in their adult careers (and Mller never returned from Brazil), Huxley's program was uncorrected. It's certainly surprising that Huxley's courses did not contain an account of the findings gathered by those naturalists of life in the tropics; evidence that they had found so convincing and which prompted their views on evolution by natural selection to be so similar. "[biology] had to be simple, synthetic, and assimilable, according to Adrian Desmond, "because" it was to educate teachers and had no other heuristic function. That must be a part of the explanation; in fact, it does help to explain the stultifying nature of much school biology. However, zoology as taught at all levels became much more than a one-man product.

Huxley was anatomical scholar, at which he was the day's greatest master. He was not an all-round naturalist like Darwin, who had demonstrated consistently enough ability to weave together detailed factual information and subtle arguments across the vast web of life. Huxley decided to take a more direct route, focusing on his personal strengths rather than in his teaching (and to some extent in his studies).

Huxley was also a major figure in British schools' history: he was elected to the London School Board in November 1870 in the first elections in November 1870. He advocated for a variety of fields, many of which are similar to what is taught today: reading, writing, arithmetic, art, science, music, and so on. He recommended two years of basic liberal studies followed by two years of some upper-division research, focusing on a more narrow field of study. On a Piece of Chalk, the latter's most popular 1868 lecture, which was first published as an essay in Macmillan's Magazine in London later this year. The work reconstructs the geological history of the United Kingdom from a small piece of chalk and demonstrates science as "organized common sense."

The Bible was read in schools, according to Huxley. This may have fallen out of tune with his agnostic convictions, but he believed that the Bible's important moral teachings and creative use of words were relevant to English life. "I do not recommend burning your ship to get rid of the cockroaches." What Huxley suggested was the production of an edited version of the Bible, shorn of "shortcomings and mistakes" that are undisputed and entirely disagreeable... [These tender children] should not be taught that [you] do not know] about." The Board approved his plan but also rejected the belief that public funds could be used to benefit students attending church schools. On those topics, a vivacious debate took place, and the debates were analyzed in detail. "I will never be a fan of allowing the state to sweep the children of this country's into denominational schools," Huxley said. The Act of Parliament, which established board schools, allowed the reading of the Bible but did not provide any denominational doctrine.

Huxley's life and work may have been seen as contributing to the British society's secularization, which eventually occurred in the following century. "It can hardly be denied that [biology] has contributed to destabilize traditional belief and value systems," Ernst Mayr said, with Huxley leading more closely than anyone else in Britain's trend. Huxley is the father of antitheism, according to some modern Christian apologists, though he claimed that he was an agnostic, not an atheist. He was, however, a lifelong and ardent critic of virtually every organized religion in his lifetime, including the "Roman Church"... with devastating results on all that is important in morality, intellectual liberty, and political human liberty. Huxley wrote "the so-called Christianity of Catholicism" in an article in Popular Science, implying that Catholic Christianity is explicitly or implicitly embedded in any credible repository of Jesus of Nazareth's teaching.

Huxley states

The use of the word has continued to this day (see Thomas Henry Huxley and agnosticism). A large part of Huxley's agnosticism is influenced by Kantian views of human behavior and the ability to rely on empirical facts rather than belief systems.

Huxley expressed dissatisfaction with 'liberal' theology's intrications in 1893, describing its doctrines as 'popular illusions,' and the lessons that were replaced 'continuously closer to the truth,' according to Huxley, who described it as 'failures'.

"Agnosticism for Huxley serves as a fig-leaf for materialism," Vladimir Lenin said. (See also the Debate with Wilberforce above).

Huxley's interest in education pushed it further than school and university classrooms; he made a concerted effort to reach young adults of all sorts: after all, he was largely self-educated. His lecture courses for working men were published later in the decade, and there was the use he made of journalism, partly to make money but mostly to reach the educated public. For the bulk of his adult life, he wrote for periodicals: the Westminster Review, the Saturday Review, the Reader, the Pall Mall Gazette, Macmillan's Magazine. German science education was still ahead of time, but Victorian readers could still have the opportunity to find out what was going on by reading periodicals and using lending libraries to find out what was going on by the time.

Huxley, the Principal of the South London Working Men's College in Blackfriars Road, was born in 1868. Wm., a portmanteau employee, was bringing the warm spirit. Rossiter, who did the bulk of the work, was the primary beneficiary, but the funds were mainly funded by F.D. The Christian Socialists of Maurice. This was a bargain for a course and a penny for a Huxley lecture; the college's free library was also an innovation that was widely copied. Huxley believed, as well as others, that the men who attended were as good as any country squire.

The method of printing his more popular lectures in periodicals that were not available to the general public was highly fruitful. "The Physical Basis of Life" was a lecture delivered in Edinburgh on November 8, 1868, providing a good example. The central point of the investigation, although not more than "the product of the molecular forces of the protoplasm that displays it," the audience was stunned, but it was nothing more than "the manifestation of the protoplasm's display"—not much more than the uproar when it was announced in the Fortnightly Review in February 1869. "No article that had appeared in any periodical for a decade caused such a stir," editor John Morley wrote. Protoplasm became a household word when it was reprinted seven times, and Punch introduced 'Professor Protoplasm' to his other soubriquets.

The topic had been ignited by Huxley's discovery of cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells, which is certainly a dazzling sight. Huxley's argument that this activity should not be explained by words such as vitality should not be explained by numbers such as vitality, but that the operation of its constituent chemicals was surprising and surprising. We may want to explore what cells do today, but little of this was known in the nineteenth century.

"Comte's philosophy [is just] Catholicism minus Christianity," Huxley said as the Archbishop of York thought this 'new philosophy' was based on Auguste Comte's positivism) "Comte's philosophies [is just] Catholicism minus Christianity." (Huxley, 1893 vol. 1 of Collected Essays Methods & Results 156). With M. Comte in the chair of St Peter, a later version of the saints' names changed, it was "completely Popery." (lecture on Positive Thinking Huxley, 1870) [Scientist Huxley's The scientific aspects of positivism Huxley's 1870 Lay Sermons, Addresses, and Reviews (p. 149). Huxley's dismissal of positivism caused it to fall apart in Britain, and Comte's theories were sorely lacking in the United Kingdom.

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