Alan Turing

At 41 years old, Alan Turing has this physical status:

Alan Mathison Turing (23 June 1912 – 7 June 1954) was an English mathematician, computer scientist, logician, cryptanalyst, philosopher, and theoretical biologist.

Turing was a major influence in the field of theoretical computer science, introducing algorithm and computation with the Turing machine, which can be regarded as a model of a general-purpose computer.

Turing is widely believed to be the father of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence.

Despite these achievements, he was not fully recognized in his home country during his lifetime, partly because of his homosexuality and because a large portion of his work was not covered by the Official Secrets Act. Turing worked at the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS), Bletchley Park, Britain's codebreaking center that produced Ultra intelligence during the Second World War (GC&CS).

He ruled Hut 8, the section that was in charge of German naval cryptanalysis, for a time.

He invented a number of ways for expediting the cracking of German ciphers, including improvements to the pre-war Polish bombe method and an electromechanical device that could find Enigma machine settings. Turing was instrumental in cracking down coded messages that enabled the Allies to defeat the Nazis in several critical battles, including the Battle of the Atlantic, and in doing so, they were able to win the war.

Early life and education

Turing was born in Maida Vale, London, although his father, Julius Mathison Turing (1873-1947), was on leave from his service with the Indian Civil Service (ICS) at Chatrapur, later in the Madras Presidency and now in Odisha, India. The Rev. Turing's father was the son of a clergyman. Robert Turing, a member of a Scottish family of merchants who had been based in the Netherlands and included a baronet. Ethel Sara Turing (née Stoney; 1881-1976), the granddaughter of Edward Waller Stoney, chief engineer of the Madras Railways, was Turing's mother, Julius' wife. The Stoneys were a Protestant Anglo-Irish family from both County Tipperary and County Longford, although Ethel herself had spent a considerable portion of her childhood in County Clare. Julius and Ethel married in Dublin on October 1st 1907 at Batholomew's church on Clyde Road.

Julius' service with the ICS led the family to British India, where his grandfather had been a general in the Bengal Army. Both Julius and Ethel wanted their children to be born in the United Kingdom, so they moved to Maida Vale, London, where Alan Turing was born on June 23, 1912, later the Colonnade Hotel. Turing's father, John Dermot Turing, was the father of Sir John Dermot Turing, the 12th Baronet of the Turing baronets).

Turing's father's civil service commission was still operational, and his parents travelled between Hastings, India, and India, leaving their two sons to remain with a retired Army couple during Turing's youth. Turing stayed at Baston Lodge, Upper Maze Hill, St Leonards-on-Sea, which is now marked with a blue plaque. The plaque was unveiled on June 23, 2012, the centennial of Turing's birth.

Turing showed signs of being the genius he was later to display prominently early in life. Turing lived in Guildford in 1927 and his parents bought a house there in 1927, and his parents stayed there during school holidays. The location is also marked with a blue plaque.

Turing's parents took him to St Michael's, a primary school in St Leonards-on-Sea, from the age of six to nine. Alan is a genius, and the headmistress acknowledged his gift, noting that she has "intelligent boys and hardworking boys."

Turing was educated at Hazelhurst Preparatory School, an independent school in the village of Frant, Sussex (now East Sussex). He went to Sherborne School, a boarding independent academy in Dorset's market town of Sherborne, where he boarded at Westcott House in 1926. Turing's first day of term coincided with the 1926 General Strike in the United Kingdom, but Turing was so determined to go, riding his bike from Southampton to Sherborne, stopping overnight at an inn.

Turing's natural attraction to mathematics and science did not earn him respect from some of Sherborne's teachers, whose emphasis on education placed more emphasis on the classics. "I hope he does not fall between two stools," his headmaster told his parents. If he wants to attend public school, he must aim to become educated. If he is to be solely a Scientific Specialist, he is wasting his time at a public school." Despite this, Turing continued to excel in the sciences he adored, solving modern problems in 1927 without having studied even elementary calculus. Turing's life began in 1928, aged 16, but it is likely that he recalled Einstein's challenge of Newton's laws of motion from a text in which this was never made explicit.

Turing's "first love" began at Sherborne, which has been described as Turing's "first love" by Christopher Collan Morcom (13 July 1911 to 13 February 1930). Their friendship inspired Turing's future, but Morcom's death in February 1930 caused bovine tuberculosis, which was prevented after drinking sick cow's milk some years ago.

Turing expressed such sadness as a result of the event. He coped with his sadness by working harder on science and mathematics, which he had not shared with Morcom. Frances Isobel Morcom (née Swan), Morcom's mother, wrote Turing in a letter: "Because Morcom's mother, a child," Turing wrote: "Understanding "to Morcom's mother Frances Isobel Morcom" (née Swan).

Turing's mother stayed close after Morcom's death, with her giving gifts to Turing and him sending letters, often on Morcom's birthday. Morcom's death was the third anniversary of his death (13 February 1933), he wrote to Mrs. Morcom a day before his third birthday (13 February 1933).

Any speculated that Morcom's death may have triggered Turing's atheism and materialism. Evidently, at this point in his life, he still believed in such beliefs as a spirit, free of the body, and surviving death. Turing wrote to Morcom's mother in a later letter.

Turing, Sherborne, Turing, aristocratic, studied at King's College, Cambridge, where he received first-class honours in mathematics from 1931 to 1934. He was named a Fellow of King's College in 1935, despite the fact that he was a variation of the central limit theorem. This version of the orem was also demonstrated by Jarl Waldemar Lindeberg in 1922, but it was unidentified to Turing. Despite this, the committee found Turing's methods original, and so thought the job deserving of consideration for the fellowship. Abram Besicovitch's report for the committee went so far as to say that if Turing's paper had been published before Lindeberg's, it would have been "an important event in the mathematical literature of that year."

Turing's paper "On Computable Numbers" in 1936 appeared in "Application to the Decisionsproblem" was released. It was published in the Proceedings of the London Mathematic Society journal in two parts, the first on November 30th and the second on December 23. Turing reformulated Kurt Gödel's 1931 findings on the boundaries of measurement and computation, replacing Gödel's universal arithmetic-based formal language with Gödel's universal arithmetic-based formal language with the modern and simple hypothetical machines that became known as Turing machines. David Hilbert, a German mathematician, first proposed the decision problem (decision problem) in 1928. Turing demonstrated that if a "universal computation machine" could do any conceivable mathematical computation if it were representable as an algorithm, it would be capable of performing any conceivable mathematical computation. He went on to show that there was no answer to the decision problem by first announcing that the Turing machine's halting problem is indeterminable: it is not possible to decide if a Turing machine will halt or not. "Easily the most influential math paper in history," this paper has been dubbed.

Turing's proof was released shortly after Alonzo Church's equivalent proof of lambda calculus, but Turing's approach is much more simple and intuitive than Church's. It also included a description of a "Universal Machine" (now known as a universal Turing machine), with the assumption that such a machine would do the same calculations as any other computation unit (as well as Church's lambda calculus). Turing machines and the lambda calculus are capable of computing anything that is computable, according to the Church-Turing thesis. The central idea of the modern computer, according to John von Neumann, was due to Turing's paper. Turing machines are a central object of research in the theory of computation.

Turing spent the bulk of his time at Princeton University in the second year as a Jane Eliza Procter Visiting Fellow from September 1936 to July 1938. He specialized in cryptology and later built three of the four stages of an electro-mechanical binary multiplier in addition to his strictly scientific work. He earned his PhD from Princeton's Department of Mathematics in June 1938; his thesis, Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals, introduced ordinal logic and the concept of relative computation, which allows the investigation of problems that are impossible to be solved by Turing machines. John von Neumann wanted to deploy him as his postdoctoral assistant, but he had to return to the United Kingdom.

Personal life

Turing planned marriage to Joan Clarke, a Hut 8 mathematician and cryptanalyst, but their involvement was short-lived. Turing decided that he did not go through with the marriage after admitting his homosexuality to his fiancée, who was reportedly "unconcerned" by the revelation.

Turing was 39 years old when he started a life with Arnold Murray, a 19-year-old unemployed man, in January 1952. Turing was strolling along Oxford Road in Manchester right before Christmas when he discovered Murray just outside the Regal Cinema and invited him to lunch. Turing's house was burgled on January 23. Murray told Turing that he and the robbery were acquainted, and Turing reported the assault to the police. During the probe, he admitted to having a sexual relationship with Murray. Both men were charged with "gross indecency" under Section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885, and homosexual offences in the United Kingdom at the time, and both men were charged with "gross indecency" under Section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885. On Tuesday, the initial committal hearings were held, but Turing's solicitor "reserved his defence," i.e., did not protest or provide evidence against the charges.

Turing was later convinced by his brother's and his own lawyer's recommendation, and he entered a plea of guilty. Regina vs. Turing and Murray was brought to court on March 31, 1952. Turing was found guilty and given the option of either prison or probation. His probation will be conditional upon his decision to undergo hormonal therapy to reduce libido, also known as "chemical castration." He accepted injections of what was then known as stilboestrol (now known as diethylstilbestrol or DES), a synthetic oestrogen, as feminism of his body continued for a year. Turing became impotent and breast tissue began to develop, putting Turing's statement that "no doubt I will emerge from it all a different man," was fulfilled in the literal sense. "But wait, I haven't found out." Murray was given a conditional discharge.

Turing's conviction resulted in his security clearance being stripped from him and prohibiting him from working with his cryptographic services for the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), the British intelligence service that had grown from GC&CS in 1946, although he retained his academic work. Since being refused admission to the United States in 1952, he was able to visit other European countries.

Turing became concerned about losing his money in the event of a German invasion in the 1940s. He bought two silver bars weighing 3,200 oz (90 kg) and worth £250 (in 2022, £8,000 adjusted for inflation, £48,000 at spot price), burying them in a wood near Bletchley Park in order to shield it. Turing discovered that he was unable to crack his own code and wondered where exactly he had hidden them on his return to dig them up. He never recovered the silver after being renovated, which also showed that the area had never recovered it.

Turing's housekeeper discovered him dead on 8 June 1954 at 43 Adlington Road, Wilmslow. He had died the day before, at the age of 41. The cause of death was identified as cyanide poisoning. An apple lay half-eaten beside his bed when his body was discovered, and although the apple was not cyanide-treated, it was believed that this was the source by which Turing had obtained a fatal dose. He had committed suicide, according to an inquest. Turing was re-enacting a scene from Walt Disney's film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937), his favorite fairy tale, according to Andrew Hodges and another biographer, David Leavitt. Both men expressed delight in Leavitt's words, "particularly keen delight in the scene where the Wicked Queen immerses her apple in the poisonous stew." Turing's remains were cremated at Woking Crematorium on June 12, 1954, and his ashes were scattered in the crematorium's gardens, as his father's were.

Jack Copeland, a philosopher, has challenged the coroner's historic decision. Turing's death was caused by accidental inhalation of cyanide fumes from an apparatus used to electroplate gold to spoons, according to him. To dissolve the gold, the potassium cyanide was used. In his tiny spare room, Turing had such a machine. The autopsy results were more consistent with inhalation than with poison ingestion, according to Copeland. Turing also ate an apple before going to bed, and it was not unprecedented for the apple to be discarded half-eaten. Turing had also survived his court setbacks and hormone therapy (which had been postponed a year before) "with a positive mood" and had no sign of depression before his death, according to a source. He even wrote down a list of tasks he wanted to finish before returning to his office after the holiday break. The ingestion was accidental, according to Turing's mother, who was the result of her son's careless storage of laboratory chemicals. Andrew Hodges argued that Turing arranged the delivery of the equipment in order to specifically deny his mother plausible deniability in connection with any suicide allegations.

Turing's belief in fortune-telling may have contributed to his sombre mood, according to some. Turing had been told by a fortune teller that he would be a genius as a youth. Turing did not seek a fortune teller during a day-trip to St Annes-on-Sea with the Greenbaum family in mid-May 1954, just before his death. Barbara, Barbara, Greenbaums' granddaughter, has a note.

In August 2009, British programmer John Graham-Cumming launched a petition urging the British government to apologise for Turing's conviction as a homosexual. More than 30,000 signatures have been collected for the petition. Gordon Brown, the Prime Minister, acknowledged the petition after a release on September 10th, 2009, apologizing and describing Turing's treatment as "appalling":

William Jones and his Member of Parliament, John Leech, wrote an e-mail requesting that Turing be pardoned by the British government for his conviction of "gross indecency" in December 2011.

The petition attracted over 37,000 signatures and was submitted to Parliament by Manchester MP John Leech, but Justice Minister Lord McNally refused to allow the petition to Parliament, but Justice Minister Lord McNally said the request was refused.

John Leech, the MP for Manchester Withington (2005–15), introduced multiple bills to Parliament and fought for a high-profile movement to gain the pardon. Leech argued in the House of Commons that Turing's service to the war made him a national hero, and that the conviction was "completely just sad" that it stood. Leech voted in Parliament and campaigned for several years, winning the public trust of numerous respected scientists, including Stephen Hawking. The producers thanked Leech for bringing the issue to public notice and securing Turing's pardon at the British premiere of a film based on Turing's life, The Imitation Game. Leech is now known as the "architect" of Turing's pardon and later the Alan Turing Law, which went on to obtain pardons for 75,000 other men and women convicted of similar offences.

A bill was introduced in the House of Lords on July 26, 2012, to give Turing a statutory pardon for offences under section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885, of which he was found guilty on March 31, 1952. In a letter sent late this year, physicist Stephen Hawking and ten other signatories, including Astronomer Sir Paul Nurse, President of the Royal Society (who served for Turing during the war), and Lord Sharkey (the bill's sponsor) advised Prime Minister David Cameron to act on the pardon request. The government said it would support the bill and that it would be in its third reading in the House of Lords in October.

On the second reading in the House of Commons on November 29, 2013, Conservative MP Christopher Chope objected to the bill, postponing its acceptance. The bill was supposed to return to the House of Commons on February 28, 2014, but the government decided against proceeding under the royal prerogative of mercy before the bill was debated in the House of Commons. Queen Elizabeth II granted a pardon for Turing's conviction for "gross indecency" on December 24, 2013, which took immediate effect. Turing deserved to be "recalled and lauded for his service to the war effort," not for his subsequent criminal conviction, according to Lord Chancellor Chris Grayling's. In August 2014, the Queen officially declared Turing pardoned. The Queen's order is only the fourth royal pardon since the Second World War's end. Pardons are usually granted only when the individual is legally fit, and a request has been made by the family or another interested party; however, neither condition was fulfilled in relation to Turing's arrest.

In what was described as a "Alan Turing law," the government declared in September 2016 that it intended to extend retroactive exoneration to other men convicted of similar historical indecency offenses. The Alan Turing Act is now an informal term for the United Kingdom's Politcing and Crime Act, which functions as an amnesty bill that allows retroactively pardon men who were warned or arrested under previous laws that outlawed homosexual conduct. Both England and Wales have the legislation.

Source

Career and research

Turing returned to Cambridge in 1939, he attended lectures delivered by Ludwig Wittgenstein on the mathematical foundations of mathematics. Interjections from Turing and other students have been included in the lectures, as well as student notes. Turing and Wittgenstein argued and disagreed, with Turing defending formalism and Wittgenstein arguing that mathematics does not establish absolute truths but rather invents them.

Turing was a leading player in the breaking of German ciphers at Bletchley Park during the Second World War. "You needed exceptional talent, you needed genius at Bletchley and Turing," Asa Briggs, a wartime codebreaker, said.

Turing worked part-time with the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS), the British codebreaking group, beginning in September 1938. He concentrated on the Enigma cipher machine used by Nazi Germany, alongside Dilly Knox, a senior GC&CS codebreaker. Turing and Knox developed a broader answer following the July 1939 meeting near Warsaw, where the Polish Cipher Bureau gave the British and French details of the Enigma machine's wiring and their method of decrypting Enigma machine's messages. The Polish method was based on an unstable signal system that indicated that the Germans were about to change, which they did in fact do in May 1940. Turing's program was more general, based on crib-based encryption for which he compiled the bombe's functional specifications (an improvement on the Polish Bomba).

Turing's first visit to Bletchley Park, the wartime station of GC&CS, on September 4, 1939, the day after the UK declared war on Germany. He was expected to sign the Official Secrets Act, despite his promise not to reveal anything about his Bletchley work, which resulted in serious court fines for violating the Rules.

Turing's first discovery of the bombe was the first of five major cryptanalytical advances made during the war. The others were: deducing the German navy's diagnostic process; designing a statistical technique called Banburismus for making much more effective use of the bombs; and, during the war, the creation of a portable secure voice scrambler at Hanslope Park codenamed Delilah was described as Devinci.

Turing made an innovative contribution to the problem by using statistical methods to optimize the testing of various options in the code cracking process. He wrote two papers on mathematical methods, titled The Applications of Probability to Cryptography and Paper on Statistics of Retrospection, which were of such value to GC&CS and its successor GCHQ that they were not released to the UK National Archives until April 2012, just before his centennial of birth. At the time, a GCHQ mathematician, "who identified himself only as Richard," said that the fact that the content had been restricted under the Official Secrets Act for more than seven years demonstrated their importance and relevance to post-war cryptanalysis.

At Bletchley Park, Turing had a reputation for eccentricity. He was known as "Prof" by his coworkers, and his Enigma treatise was titled the "Prof's Book." Jack Good, a cryptanalyst who worked with Turing, said of his colleague: "No one knew it was a terrorist," a scholar who worked with Turing, said.

In his book "Reminisces of Bletchley Park," Peter Hilton recalled his time with Turing in Hut 8.

In the Nova PBS documentary Decoding Nazi Secrets, Hilton shared similar ideas.

When working at Bletchley, Turing, a talented long-distance runner, occasionally ran the 40 miles (64 km) to London when he was required for meetings, and he was able to meet world-class marathon standards. Turing tried to qualify for the 1948 British Olympic team, but he was hampered by an injury. His tryout time for the marathon was only 11 minutes slower than British silver medalist Thomas Richards' Olympic record time of 2 hours 35 minutes. He was the best runner for Walton Athletic Club, a fact he discovered when running alone. When asked why he worked so hard in preparation, he replied: 'Why does he run so hard in preparation.'

It's impossible to determine the effect Ultra intelligence had on the war due to the challenges of counterfactual history. However, official war historian Harry Hinsley said that this work cut the war in Europe by more than two years and saved more than 14 million people.

A memo was sent to all those who had served at Bletchley Park, reminding them that the Official Secrets Act's code of silence did not end with the war but will persist indefinitely. Therefore, even though Turing was named an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 1946 by King George VI for his wartime duties, his work remained largely unknown for many years.

Turing had developed the bombe, which could have decrypted Enigma more effectively than the Polish bomba kryptologiczna, from which the name was derived within weeks of its arrival at Bletchley Park. The bombe, as a result of mathematician Gordon Welchman's invention, became one of the primary weapons and the most sophisticated one used to attack Enigma-enciphered messages.

Using a suitable crib, the bomber investigated for possible Enigma messages (i.e., rotor order, rotor settings, and plugboard settings). The bombe carried out a sequence of logical deductions based on the crib's settings (which included 1019 states, or 1022 states for the four-rotor U-boat variant).

The bomber detected when a contradiction had arisen and ruled out that configuration, which led to the next. The majority of the potential settings would result in contradictions and be deleted, leaving only a few cases to be investigated in detail. When an enciphered letter is turned back into the same plaintext letter, it would be impossible with the Enigma. On March 18, 1940, the first bomber was launched.

Turing and his fellow cryptanalysts, Gordon Welchman, Hugh Alexander, and Stuart Milner-Barry were all frustrated by late 1941. They had devised a good working system for decrypting Enigma signals, but they were unable to interpret all of the messages due to their limited staff and bombs. They had a lot of success in the summer, and shipping losses had dropped to under 100,000 tons a month; however, they desperately needed more help keeping up with German changes. They had tried to recruit more people and fund more bombers through the right channels, but they had failed.

Turing was the first named in a letter written by the visitors on October 28th, a letter written specifically to Winston Churchill resolving their issues. They stressed how little they needed compared to the army's large investment of men and money, as well as the degree of support they could provide to the forces. "This letter had an electric effect," Turing biographer Andrew Hodges later wrote. "ACTION THIS DAY," Churchill wrote a letter to General Ismay, which read: "ACTION THIS DAY." Make sure they have all of their priorities on top priority and tell me that this has been done." Every possible step was taken, according to the service's chief, who confirmed it on November 18th. The cryptographers at Bletchley Park were unaware of the Prime Minister's response, but Milner-Barry recalled, "All we did notice was that the rough ways were not smooth beginning miraculously." By the time of the conflict, more than two hundred bombers were operating.

Turing decided to tackle the particularly difficult problem of German naval Enigma "because no one else was doing anything about it, and I could have it to myself." Turing completed the vital part of the naval indicator system in December 1939, which was more complicated than the other services' indicator systems.

He also thought of Banburismus, a sequential statistical method that Abraham Wald later described as a result of sequential analysis), to help with cracking the naval Enigma, but he wasn't positive that it would work in practice, and was not sure until certain days had actually broken." He used a measure of weight of evidence that he called the ban in order to do so. Banburismus could have ruled out certain Enigma rotor sequences, significantly reducing the time required to test parameters on the bombs. In Cryptanalysis of the Lorenz cipher, a continuous process of gathering sufficient evidence using decibans (one tenth of a ban) was used later.

Turing traveled to the United States in November 1942 and worked with US Navy cryptanalysts on the naval Enigma and bombe construction in Washington; he also visited their Computing Machine Laboratory in Dayton, Ohio.

Turing's reaction to the American bombet design was far from optimistic: the American bombe design had a skeptic's reaction.

During this trip, he also helped Bell Labs with the design of encrypted speech systems. In March 1943, he returned to Bletchley Park. Hugh Alexander had officially assumed the role of head of Hut 8. However, Alexander had been de facto head for some time (Turing having no concern about the day-to-day running of the department). Turing joined Bletchley Park as a general consultant for cryptanalysis.

Turing's contribution was described by Alexander: Turing's contribution was described by Alexander:

Turing invented Turingery (or jokingly Turingismus) in July 1942 for use against the Lorenz cipher messages that were produced by the Germans' new Geheimschreiber (or unethical writer) machine. Tunny at Bletchley Park was a teleprinter cipher attachment code. Turingery, or, in other words, a process for working out Tunny's cam settings. He also introduced Tommy Flowers, who under Max Newman's leadership, to develop the Colossus computer, the world's first programmable digital computer, and whose superior speed enabled statistical decryption techniques to be applied effectively to the messages. Turing was a key figure in the creation of the Colossus computer, according to some. Turingery and Banburismus's statistical approach boosted the discussion of the Lorenz cipher's cryptanalysis, but he was not directly involved in the Colossus's construction.

Turing, a narrator of voice in the telephone system, wanted to explore the prospect of electronic enciphering of speech in the telephone system. In the latter part of the war, he went to work with the Secret Service's Radio Security Service (later HMGCC) in Hanslope Park. With the support of engineer Donald Bayley, he expanded his electronics knowledge at the park. They undertook the design and construction of a portable secure voice communications device coded Delilah. The unit was designed for various uses, but it was lacking the capability to be used with long-distance radio transmissions. In any case, Delilah was completed too late to be used during the war. Despite the fact that the device worked well, with Turing demonstrating it to officials by encrypting and decrypting a recording of a Winston Churchill speech, Delilah was not intended for use. Turing also worked with Bell Labs on the development of SIGSALY, a safe voice device that was used in the later years of the war.

Turing lived in Hampton, London, from 1945 to 1947, while working on the engineering of the National Physical Laboratory's ACE (Automatic Computing Engine). On February 19, 1946, he delivered a paper that was the first comprehensive layout of a storage-program computer. According to John R. Womersley, NPL Mathematics Division Superintendent, one of Dr. Turing's papers, but it was much less comprehensive and "contains a number of concepts that are Dr. Turing's own."

Although ACE was a viable model, Turing's explanation of how a computer system operated by human operators was impossible because of the Official Secrets Act surrounding the wartime work at Bletchley Park. This resulted in delays in starting the project, and he was disillusioned. He returned to Cambridge in late 1947 for a sabbatical year in which he created a seminal work on Intelligent Machinery that was not published in his lifetime. In his absence, the Pilot ACE was being built in his absence while he was at Cambridge. Its first program was held on May 10, 1950, and a number of older computers around the world owe a great deal to it, including the English Electric DEUCE and the American Bendix G-15. The complete version of Turing's ACE was not available until after his death.

Turing and Konrad Zuse met in Düsseldorf, according to Heinz Billing's memoirs, which were published by Genscher, Düsseldorf. In 1947, a competition took place in Göttingen, Germany. The interrogation took the form of a colloquium. Womersley, Turing, Porter of England, and a few German scholars such as Zuse, Walther, and Billing were among the participants (for more information see Herbert Bruderer, Konrad Zuse undiger).

Turing was appointed reader in the Mathematics Department of Victoria University of Manchester in 1948. He served as deputy director of the Computing Machine Laboratory, where he worked on applications for one of the oldest stored-program computers, the Manchester Mark 1. Turing wrote the first version of the Programmer's Manual for this machine, and Ferranti recruited him as a consultant in the construction of Ferranti Mark 1. Until his death, Ferranti continued to be paid consultancy fees. Turing proposed the Turing test, a way to establish a benchmark for a machine during this period. (Mind, October 1950) Turing continued to do more abstract mathematics, and in "Computing Machinery and Intelligence." The theory was that a computer could be said to "think" if a human interrogator could not tell it apart from a human being by talking. Turing suggested in the paper that rather than designing a program to imitate the adult mind, it would be more feasible to develop a simpler version to mimic a child's brain and then subject it to a course of education. On the internet, a reversed Turing test is widely used; the CAPTCHA test is intended to determine whether the user is a human or a computer.

Turing, 1948, was a student at the University of D.G., who worked with his former undergraduate colleague, D.G. Champernowne began writing a chess program for a computer that didn't yet exist. The program was complete and dubbed the Turochamp by 1950. He tried to implement it on a Ferranti Mark 1 in 1952, but the computer was unable to run the commands because of the program's inadequate resources. Rather, Turing "ran" the program by flipping through the pages of the algorithm and executing its instructions on a chessboard, taking about half an hour per move. The game was recorded. Turing's service "played a recognizable game of chess," Garry Kasparov said. The program was lost to Turing's colleague Alick Glennie, but it was announced that it defeated Champernowne's wife Isabel.

His Turing experiment was a significant, highly provocative, and long-running contribution to the discussion of artificial intelligence, which is now in its sixth decade.

Turing converted to mathematical chemistry when he was 39 years old in 1951, before releasing his masterpiece "The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis" in January 1952. He was interested in morphogenesis, or the formation of patterns and shapes in biological organisms. "The key phenomena of morphogenesis" could be a system of chemicals reacting with each other and diffusing across space, according to the author. To simulate catalytic chemical reactions, he used systems of partial differential equations. For example, if a catalyst A is required for a specific chemical reaction to occur, and if the reaction produced more of the catalyst A, we say the reaction is autocatalytic, and nonlinear differential equations can be used to model autocatalytic reactions. Turing discovered that patterns could be created if the chemical reaction not only produced catalyst A, but also produced an inhibitor B that slowed down the manufacturing of A. If A and B were diluted through the container at different rates, you may have some regions that were dominant and others where B did not exist. Turing would have needed a powerful computer to calculate the ratios by hand, but this wasn't widely available in 1951, so he'd have to use linear approximations to solve the equations by hand. These measurements yielded the right qualitative results, as well as a standardized mixture that oddly enough had regular spacing between fixed red spots. Boris Belousov, a Russian biochemist, had conducted experiments with similar results but was unable to get his papers published due to a widespread belief that such things breached the second law of thermodynamics. Belousov was unaware of Turing's paper in the Royal Society's Philosophical Transactions.

Turing's work on morphogenesis, although published before the introduction and function of DNA was understood, is still relevant today and is considered a seminal piece of mathematical biology research. James Murray's paper was one of the first applications of Turing's paper, describing spots and stripes on cats' fur fur, both large and small. Turing's work, according to new studies, may partially explain the development of "feathers, hair follicles, the branching pattern of lungs, and even the left-right asymmetry that places the heart on the left side of the chest. Sheth, et al., was a writer in 2012. In mice, deletion of Hox genes results in an increase in the number of digits without an increase in the overall length of the leg, which means that Hox genes control digit formation by tuning the wavelength of a Turing-type process. The early papers were not available until Collected Works of A. M. Turing, 1992, was published.

Source