Albert Einstein

At 76 years old, Albert Einstein has this physical status:

Life and career

Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, Germany's Kingdom, on March 14, 1879, into a family of secular Ashkenazi Jews. Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, and Pauline Koch were among his parents. The family migrated to Munich, where Einstein's father and uncle Jakob established Elektrotechnik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that made electrical equipment based on direct current, was established in 1880.

Albert attended a Catholic elementary school in Munich from the age of five to three years. He was admitted to the Luitpold-Gymnasium (now known as the Albert-Einstein-Gymnasium), where he received advanced primary and secondary school education until he left the German Empire seven years later.

Hermann and Jakob's company lost an opportunity to supply electrical lighting to Munich in 1894 because they did not have the funds to convert their equipment from the direct current (DC) code to the more cost-effective alternating current (AC) version. The company's loss prompted the disposal of the Munich plant. The Einstein family migrated to Italy in search of success, first to Milan and then to Pavia a few months later. When the family returned to Pavia, Einstein, then 15, they stayed in Munich to complete his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father had intended for him to study electrical engineering, but Einstein disagreed with the government and resented the school's curriculum and teaching methods. In strict rote learning, the spirit of learning and creative thought was lost, he later wrote. He came to Pavia to visit his family, persuading the school to allow him to leave by using a doctor's note. "On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field" during his stay in Italy.

Einstein excelled at math and physics from a young age, achieving a mathematical proficiency years ahead of his peers. Over a summer, Einstein, a 12-year-old boy, learned algebra and Euclidean geometry. Einstein also discovered original evidence of the Pythagorean theorem at the age of 12. After a short time "[Einstein] had worked through the entire book," a family tutor Max Talmud says. He devoted himself to higher mathematics... His mathematical genius was so high that I couldn't keep up." The 12-year-old boy's obsession with geometry and algebra led him to believe that nature could be described as a "mathematical system." Einstein began teaching calculus at 12, and as a 14-year-old boy, he says he had "mastered integral and differential calculus."

Einstein was introduced to Kant's Critique of Pure Reason at the age of 13, when he had become more interested in philosophy (and music). Kant became his favorite scholar at the time, just 13 years old, but Kant's contributions, which were incomprehensible to average mortals, seemed to be clear to him."

Einstein took the entrance examinations for the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zürich in 1895 (later: Eidgenössische Hochschule, ETH). He did not meet the required requirements in the general exam, but he gained outstanding marks in physics and mathematics. He began his secondary education in Aarau, Switzerland, on the advice of the principal of the polytechnic school. Marie, Jost Winteler's daughter, fell in love with him while lodging with Winteler's daughter. Maja of Albert married Winteler's son Paul later this year. Einstein renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg in January 1896 in order to avoid military service. On a scale of 1 to 6, he passed the Swiss Matura in September 1896 with mainly good marks, including a top score of 6 in physics and mathematical subjects. He enrolled in the Federal polytechnic school's four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the age of 17. Marie Winteler, a year older, moved to Olsberg, Switzerland, for a teaching job.

Mileva Mari, a 20-year-old Serbian woman, who enrolled in the polytechnic school that year, was Einstein's future wife. She was the only female student in the teaching diploma program's mathematics and physics sections. Einstein's and Mari's friendship developed into a love over the next few years, and they spent countless hours discussing extracurricular physics in which they were both fascinated. In his letters to Mari, Einstein said he liked studying with her. Einstein passed the Maths and Physics exams in 1900 and was granted a Federal teaching diploma. Mari may have collaborated with Einstein prior to his 1905 papers, known as the Annus Mirabilis papers, and that they created some of the theories together during their research, but some physics historians have disagreed that she made no substantive contributions.

In 1987, Einstein and Mari's correspondence began, revealing that the couple had a daughter named "Lieserl" who was born in early 1902 in Novi Sad, where Mari was staying with her parents. Mari returned to Switzerland without the child, whose true name and fate are uncertain. According to Einstein's letter in September 1903, the child was either given up for adoption or died of scarlet fever in infancy.

In January 1903, Einstein and Maria were married. Hans Albert Einstein, their son, was born in Bern, Switzerland, in May 1904. Eduard was born in Zürich in July 1910. Both families moved to Berlin in April 1914, but Mari and her sons learned that Elsa Löwenthal, Einstein's first cousin maternally and second cousin paternally, was the latter. Einstein and Marija broke down on February 14, 1919, after being separated for five years. Einstein promised Marianne any future (in the case of 1921) Nobel Prize money was not awarded in the case.

Einstein wrote to his early love Marie Winteler in letters revealed in 2015. "I think of you in every spare minute and am so sad as only a man can be," he wrote in 1910 while his wife was pregnant with their second child. He talked about a "misguided love" and a "missed life" relating to Marie's love for her.

After having had a friendship with Löwenthal since 1912, Einstein married her in 1919. In 1933, they immigrated to the United States. Elsa died in December 1936 after being diagnosed with heart and kidney disease.

In 1923, Einstein fell in love with Betty Neumann, the niece of a close friend, Hans Mühsam. In a series of letters published by Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 2006, Einstein described six women, including Margarete Lebach (a blonde Austrian), Estella Katzenellenbogen (the wealthy owner of a florist business), Toni Mendel (a Berlin socialite), and Ethel Michanowski (a Berliner socialite), with whom he spent time and from whom he received gifts while married to Elsa. Einstein was briefly in a friendship with Margarita Konenkova later in life after his second wife Elsa's death. Konenkova was a Russian spy who was married to celebrated Russian sculptor Sergei Konenkov (who fabricated the bronze bust of Einstein at Princeton's Institute for Advanced Study).

Eduard Einstein's son, Eduard, had a breakdown around age 20 and was diagnosed with schizophrenia. His mother cared for him and he was also admitted to asylum for several years, but the Psychiatric University Hospital in Zürich, in Burghölzli, has been committed permanently to Burghölzli.

Einstein spent almost two years looking for a teaching position after graduating in 1900. He obtained Swiss citizenship in February 1901, but not for medical reasons. He obtained a job in Bern as an assistant examiner (level III) with the support of Marcel Grossmann's father.

Einstein considered patent applications for a number of products, including a gravel sorter and an electromechanical typewriter. His position at the Swiss Patent Office remained permanent in 1903, but he was refused promotion until he "fully understood machine technology."

During his tenure in the patent office, a large portion of his work revolved around issues related to electric signal transmission and time synchronization, two scientific difficulties that led to Einstein's controversial conclusions about the origins of light and the fundamental correlation between space and time.

Einstein formed "The Olympia Academy," a small discussion group that met regularly to discuss science and philosophy with a few people he had encountered in Bern. They were often joined by Mileva, who attentively listened but did not participate. They read Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, and David Hume, which all inspired his scientific and philosophical outlook.

In 1900, Einstein's paper "Folgerungen von den Capillaritätserscheinungen" ("Conclusions from the Capillary Phenomena") was published in the journal Annalen der Physik. Einstein wrote A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions with Alfred Kleiner, pro-forma advisor, on April 30th. Einstein was given a PhD on January 15, 1906, after his thesis was accepted in July 1905.

At the age of 26, Einstein's annus mirabilis (amazing year) published four groundbreaking papers on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and the equival of mass and energy, which were supposed to bring him to the attention of the academic world.

He was named as a leading scientist by 1908 and was appointed lecturer at the University of Bern. Alfred Kleiner recommended him to the University of Zurich's faculty for a newly established professorship in theoretical physics the following year. In 1909, Einstein was appointed associate professor.

In April 1911, Einstein became a full professor at the German Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague, accepting Austrian citizenship in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He wrote 11 scientific papers during his stay in Prague, five of which dealt with radiation mathematics and the quantum theory of solids.

He returned to Zürich's alma mater in July 1912. He was a professor of theoretical physics at the ETH Zurich, where he taught analytical mechanics and thermodynamics from 1912 to 1914. He also studied continuum mechanics, the molecular theory of heat, and gravitation, which he co-ordinated with mathematician and friend Marcel Grossmann.

Einstein was one of the few German intellectuals to rebut the text and sign the pacifistic "Manifesto to the Europeans" when it was published in October 1914, a document written by a slew of influential German intellectuals who defended Germany's militarism and position during the First World War.

Einstein was lured to Berlin in 1913 with a membership in the Prussian Academy of Sciences and a joint University of Berlin professorship, enabling him to concentrate solely on research. He joined the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin on July 3, 1913. Max Planck and Walther Nernst visited him in Zurich this week to convince him to enroll in the academy while also granting him the position of director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics, which was soon to be established. At Humboldt University of Berlin, members of the academy obtained a salary and professorship without teaching duties. He was officially admitted to the academy on July 24th, and the following year, he migrated to Berlin. The decision to move to Berlin was also influenced by the prospect of living near his cousin Elsa, with whom he had begun a romantic relationship. After moving into his Dahlem flat on 1 April 1914, Einstein assumed his professorship and Berlin University. The Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics's plans were postponed as World War I came out that year. Einstein was the institute's director on October 1st, 1917. Einstein was elected president of the German Physical Society in 1916 (1916-1918).

Einstein calculated the deflection of light from another celetic by the Sun's gravity in 1911. Einstein improved on those estimates by using Riemannian space-time to represent the gravity field in 1913. Einstein had successfully established his general theory of relativity, which he used to estimate deflection, and Mercury's precession. During the 1919 solar eclipse, Sir Arthur Eddington predicted that deflection prediction was made by 1919. Einstein's findings were published in international media, making him world-famous. "Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown" was the leading British newspaper on the 7th November 1919.

He became a Foreign Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1920. He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for his contributions to Theoretical Physics and in particular for his discovery of the photoelectric effect. Although the general theory of relativity was still controversial, the citation does not include photos from the cited photoelectric studies as an explanation, but rather as a result of the law's discovery, which did not occur in 1924. In 1921, Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS). In 1925, he received the Royal Society's Copley Medal.

In March 1933, Einstein resigned from the Prussian Academy. During his stay in Berlin, Einstein developed the general theory of relativity, establishing the gyromagnetic effect, contributing to radiation's quantum theory, and Bose–Einstein statistics.

On April 2, 1921, Einstein visited New York City for the first time, where he was welcomed by Mayor John Francis Hylan followed by three weeks of lectures and receptions. He went on to give several lectures at Columbia University and Princeton University, and he accompanied National Academy of Sciences representatives in Washington, Washington, on a visit to the White House. On his return to Europe, he was the guest of British statesman and philosopher Viscount Haldane in London, where he spoke with numerous influential academic, intellectual, and political figures and gave a lecture at King's College London.

In July 1921, he published an essay titled "My First Impression of the United States," in which he briefly outlined some of Americans' characteristics, as had Alexis de Tocqueville, who wrote his own reflections on Democracy in America (1835). Einstein was clearly surprised by some of his observations: "What strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude to life." The American is warm, self-confident, optimistic, and free of envy."

On a six-month trip to Asia and Palestine as part of a six-month trip and speaking tour, he took him to Singapore, Ceylon, and Japan, where he delivered a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese people. He paid a visit to the Imperial Palace, where thousands gathered to watch emperor and empress after his first public lecture. In a letter to his sons, he described his Japanese experience as humble, thoughtful, and having a keen sense of art. In his own travel diaries from his 1922-1923 visit to Asia, he shares some thoughts about the Chinese, Japanese, and Indian people, which have been described as xenophobic and racial judgments since they were discovered in 2018.

Because of Einstein's travels to the Far East, he was unable to accept the Nobel Prize for Physics at the Stockholm award ceremony in December 1922. In his absence, a German diplomat who praised Einstein not only as a scientist but also as a global peacemaker and activist.

On his return journey, he visited Palestine for 12 days, his first visit to the area. On his arrival at the home of British High Commissioner Sir Herbert Samuel, he was greeted as if he were a head of state rather than a physicist. People who wanted to see and hear him at one reception. In Einstein's address to the audience, he expressed delight that the Jewish people were starting to be recognized as a power in the world.

Einstein stayed in Spain for two weeks in 1923, where he briefly visited Santiago Ramón y Cajal and later received a diploma from King Alfonso XIII designating him a member of the Spanish Academy of Sciences.

Einstein was a member of the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations in Geneva from 1922 to 1932, a body established to foster international exchange between scientists, researchers, artists, and intellectuals. Originally intended to serve as the Swiss delegate, however, Catholic activists Oskar Halecki and Giuseppe Motta persuaded him to rename him as the German delegate, allowing Gonzague de Reynold to take the Swiss position, which he praised traditionalist Catholic values. Hendrik Lorentz, Einstein's former physics professor, and Polish chemist Marie Curie were among the committee members.

Einstein spent a week in Argentina, a week in Uruguay, and a week in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in the months of March and April 1925. Jorge Duclout (1856–1927) and Mauricio Nirenstein (1877-1935), among other Argentina scholars, including Julio Rey Pastor, Jakob Laub, and Leopoldo Lugones, initiated Einstein's travel by 1856-1937. The visit by Einstein and his wife was mainly funded by the University of Buenos Aires and the Asociación Hebraica Argentina (Argentine Hebraic Association), with less contributions from the Argentine-Germanic Cultural Institute.

Einstein returned to America in December 1930 for the second time as a research fellow at the California Institute of Technology. He and his arrangers aimed to shield his identity after the national spotlight he received on his first trip to the United States, and his lawyers aimed to shield his personal information. Although he was overwhelmed with telegrams and invitations to receive awards or speak out in public, he turned down all.

Einstein was taken to several places and activities, including Chinatown, a lunch with the editors of The New York Times, and a preview of Carmen at the Metropolitan Opera, where the audience booed him on his arrival. During the days leading up to the city by Mayor Jimmy Walker, he was given the keys to the city by Mayor Jimmy Walker and met with Columbia University's president, who referred to Einstein as "the ruling monarch of the mind." Einstein was given a tour of the cathedral by Harry Emerson Fosdick, pastor of Riverside Church in New York City, and the church gave him a full statue of Einstein. During his stay in New York, he entertained a crowd of 15,000 people at Madison Square Garden during a Hanukkah celebration.

Einstein travelled to California next year, where he visited Caltech president and Nobel Laureate Robert A. Millikan. Millikan's friendship with Millikan was "awkward," as Millikan "was a penchant for patriotic militarism," where Einstein, a pronounced pacifist," was a point of contention. Einstein said in an address to Caltech's students that science was often more destructive than helpful.

Einstein was also able to befriend author Upton Sinclair and film actor Charlie Chaplin, both noted for their pacifism during this aversion to war. Einstein was given a tour of his studio by Carl Laemmle, who introduced him to Chaplin. They had a quick connection, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner. Einstein's outward demeanor, who was tame and sensitive, seemed to mask a "highly emotional temperament," which led to his "extraordinary intellectual vigor," Chaplin explained.

City Lights, Chaplin's film, was set to premiere in Hollywood a few days later, and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guests. "One of the most memorable scenes in the new era of fame," Einstein's biographer Walter Isaacson characterized it as "one of the most memorable scenes in the current era of fame." Chaplin visited Einstein at his Berlin home on a later trip to Berlin and recalled his "modest little apartment" and the piano in which he had begun writing his theory. It was "possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis," Chaplin explained.

Einstein's in February 1933, while on a visit to the United States, was aware that he would not return to Germany under Hitler's new chancellor, Adolf Hitler.

He began visiting professorships at American universities in early 1933, and at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. The Gestapo raided his family's flat in Berlin repeatedly between February and March 1933. On March 27, he and his wife Elsa returned to Europe, and they learned that the German Reichstag had passed the Enabling Act, transforming Hitler's government into a de facto political dictatorship, and that they would not be able to go to Berlin. They learned that the Nazis and Einstein's personal sailboat confiscated their cottage later on. Einstein officially renouncing his German citizenship after landing in Antwerp, Belgium, on March 28th. Later, the Nazis sold his boat and turned his cottage into a Hitler Youth Camp.

Einstein discovered in April 1933 that the new German government had passed legislation banning Jews from serving in any official capacity, including teaching at universities. With "no audible demonstrations being launched by their peers," thousands of Jewish scientists were immediately compelled to resign from their academic positions and their names were removed from the rolls of universities where they had been employed, according to historian Gerald Holton.

Einstein's works were among those threatened by the Nazi Party in the Nazi book burnings a month later, with Nazi propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels announcing, "Jewish intellectualism is dead." According to a German daily, he was included in a list of opponents of the German regime, including the word "not yet hanged" as a reward on his head. "...... In a follow-up letter to physicist and friend Max Born, who had just moved from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, "...... ' "The degree of their brutality and cowardice was something of a surprise," I must admit. "spontaneous emotional outburst" by those who "shun popular enlightenment," and "more than any other in the world," he said, worried about the influence of men of intellectual liberty.

Einstein was now without a permanent home, uncertain where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of hundreds of other scientists who were still in Germany. Einstein was able to leave Germany after being aided by the Academic Assistance Council, which was established in April 1933 by British liberal economist William Beveridge to assist academics in escaping Nazi persecution. He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he had lived for a few months. He travelled to England for about six weeks at the behest of British naval officer Commander Oliver Locker-Lampson, who had been friends with Einstein for the previous years. Locker-Lampson invited him to spend time in a wooden cabin on Roughton Heath in Norfolk's Parish of Roughton. Locker-Lampson had two bodyguards watch over him at his private cabin; a snapshot of them wielding shotguns and guarding Einstein was published in the Daily News on July 24, 1933.

Locker-Lampson brought Winston Churchill to his house, later, Austen Chamberlain, and former Prime Minister Lloyd George. Einstein pleaded with them to assist Jewish scientists in Germany. Churchill's friend, physicist Frederick Lindemann, sent him to Germany immediately to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities, according to British historian Martin Gilbert. Churchill later found that as a result of Germany's persecution of Jews, they had lowered their "technical requirements" and brought the Allies' technologies ahead of theirs.

Einstein later contacted officials of other nations, including Turkey's Prime Minister, smet nönü, who wrote in September 1933, demanding the placement of unemployed German-Jewish scientists. Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over "1,000 saved individuals" as a result of Einstein's letter.

During which time Einstein made several public appearances describing the crisis unfolding in Europe, Locker-Lampson presented a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein. He condemned Germany's treatment of Jews in one of his speeches, while simultaneously introducing a bill to promote Jewish citizenship in Palestine, as they were being refused citizenship elsewhere. Einstein's address in which he described him as a "citizen of the world" who may require a temporary shelter in the United Kingdom. Both bills failed, but Einstein eventually accepted an earlier invitation from the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, USA, to become a resident scholar.

During a packed audience at the Royal Albert Hall in London on October 3, 1933, Einstein spoke out in favor of academic freedom, with The Times claiming he was largely applauded throughout. Four days later, he returned to the United States and accepted a fellowship at the Institute for Applied Research, recognizing that he had become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany. As a result of their Jewish quotas, which lasted until the late 1940s, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton, and Yale, had no Jewish faculty or students at all.

Einstein was also debating his future. He had been accepted at several European universities, including Christ Church, Oxford, where he spent three short years between May 1931 and June 1933, but he was able to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship in 1935.

Einstein's work with the Institute for Applied Research continued until his death in 1955. He was one of the four first selected (along with John von Neumann, Kurt Gödel, and Hermann Weyl) at the new Institute, where he soon developed a close friendship with Gödel. The two people will walk for long stretches together discussing their careers. Bruria Kaufman, his assistant, later became a physicist. Einstein attempted to develop a joint field theory and debunk the accepted interpretation of quantum physics, but both failed.

A group of Hungarian scientists led by Leó Szilárd, an émigré scientist, warned Washington of continuing Nazi nuclear bomb research. The company's warnings were discounted. "They hoped that German scientists would win the race to build an atomic bomb and warned that Hitler would be more than willing to use such a weapon." Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein in July 1939, a few months before World War II began in Europe, to ensure that the US was aware of the danger, a pacifist. He was urged to contribute by writing a letter to President Roosevelt recommending that the US pay attention and participate in its own nuclear research, which he did not do.

On the eve of the United States' participation in World War II, the letter is thought to have been "arguably the leading motive for the United States' acceptance of deep probes into nuclear weapons." In addition to the letter, Einstein obtained access to the White House's Oval Office via his links with the Belgian Royal Family and the Belgian queen mother. Some believe the United States entered the "race" to develop the bomb as a result of Einstein's letter and his talks with Roosevelt, relying on its "immense, financial, and scientific capabilities" to start the Manhattan Project.

"War was a disease for Einstein [and] he called for an end to war." Some believe he went against his pacifist ideals by signing the letter to Roosevelt. Einstein wrote a letter in 1954, a year before his death, to his old friend, Linus Pauling, "I made one big mistake in my life," Einstein wrote a letter advising that atom bombs be made; but there was also a danger that the Germans might make them..."

In 1940, Einstein became an American citizen. He expressed his admiration of the meritocracy in American culture compared to Europe not long after starting his studies at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. He affirmed that people had the right to say and think what they desired without having social barriers. As a result, people were encouraged to be more innovative, a characteristic he admired from his early education.

In Princeton, where he campaigned for African American civil rights, Einstein joined the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). He regarded bigotry in America as "handed down from one generation to the next." He collaborated with civil rights activist W. E. B. B. as part of his work. During his conviction in 1951, Du Bois was allowed to testify on his behalf. The judge dismissed Einstein's request to appear as a character witness for Du Bois.

Einstein received a doctorate from Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, a historically black college, where he was given an honorary degree in 1946. Lincoln was the first university in the United States to offer college degrees to African Americans; among the alumni include Langston Hughes and Thurgood Marshall. In America, Einstein delivered a talk about bigotry, adding, "I do not want to be silent about it." Einstein had once paid the college tuition for a black student, according to a Princeton resident. "I'm a Jew myself, perhaps I can comprehend and sympathize with how black people are portrayed as victims of discrimination."

Einstein, 1918, was one of the founding members of the German Democratic Party, a liberal group. Einstein's political stance was in favour of socialism and critical of capitalism, which he elaborated in his essays, including "Why Socialism?" Bolsheviks' views also changed with time. He chastised them for not having a 'well-regulated system of government' in 1925 and called their reign a "regime of terror and a human tragedy." He later took a more moderated role, criticizing their methods but lauding them, as shown by his 1929 remark on Vladimir Lenin: "I honor a man who has pledged his whole life to realizing social justice in Lenin." I do not find his methods useful. However, one thing is certain: men like him are the guardians and restorers of mankind's conscience." Einstein was invited to provide judgments and comments on topics that were not closely related to theoretical physics or mathematics, and he was asked to do so. He argued strongly in favor of a democratic global government that would examine nation-states' leadership in the context of a global federation. "I favor the world government because I am certain that there is no other conceivable way to eliminate the most dangerous threat in which a man has ever found himself." In 1932, the FBI developed a clandestine dossier on Einstein, and his FBI file by the time of his death was 1,427 pages long.

Mahatma Gandhi, with whom he exchanged written letters, left Einstein greatly impressed. Gandhi was described as "a role model for the generations to come" by the emperor. Wilfrid Israel brought his Indian friend V. A. Sundaram to visit his friend Einstein at his summer home in Caputh on September 27. Sundaram was Gandhi's disciple and special envoy, whom Wilfrid Israel met while visiting India and touring the Indian leader's house in 1925. Einstein wrote a short letter to Gandhi that was sent by his envoy during his visit, and Gandhi responded immediately with his own letter. Although Einstein and Gandhi were unable to meet as they had hoped, a direct link between them was established through Wilfrid Israel.

Einstein was a figurehead in the establishment of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, which opened in 1925 and was among the first Board of Governors of Israel. Chaim Weizmann, a biochemist and president of the World Zionist Organization, had asked him to help raise funds for the planned university earlier this year. He suggested the establishment of an Institute of Agriculture, a Chemical Institute, and a Microbiology Center in order to combat the epidemics of malaria, which he described as a "evil" that was undermining a third of the country's growth. He also advocated for the establishment of an Oriental Studies Institute, which would include language courses in both Hebrew and Arabic.

Einstein was not a nationalist and opposed the establishment of an independent Jewish state, which would not exist without his assistance as Israel in 1948. He believed that the waves of arriving Jews of the Aliyah would live alongside Palestinians in Palestine. However, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion gave Einstein the largely ceremonial position of President of Israel upon his death in November 1952, at the request of Ezriel Carlebach. Israel's ambassador in Washington, Abba Eban, said that the bid "embodies the deepest respect" which the Jewish people can repose in any of their sons. Einstein wrote that he was "deeply moved," but that "at first saddened and ashamed" that he did not accept it.

In a variety of original writings and interviews, Einstein discussed his spiritual outlook. He expressed sympathy for Baruch Spinoza's philosophy's impersonal pantheistic God. He did not believe in a personal god who worries about the fates and activities of human beings, a belief he described as nave. However, he said, "I am not an atheist," preferring to describe himself as an agnostic or a "deeply religious nonbeliever." Einstein replied, "No. Unless you believe in an afterlife." "One life is enough for me."

In both the United Kingdom and the United States, Einstein was primarily associated with non-religious Humanist and Ethical Culture organizations. He served on the first Humanist Society of New York's advisory board and was an honorary associate of the Rationalist Association, which publishes New Humanist in the United Kingdom. He said that the idea of Ethical Culture embodied his personal interpretation of what is most valuable and enduring in religious idealism on the 75th anniversary of the New York Society for Ethical Culture. "Without 'ethical faith,' there is no hope for humanity," the narrator said.

Einstein wrote a letter in German-language to philosopher Eric Gutkind, dated 3 January 1954, he wrote: Einstein wrote: 'Einstein wrote: 'In a German-language letter to philosopher Eric Gutkind: dated 3 January 1954.'

Einstein had been supporting vegetarianism for a long time. He wrote: 'In a letter sent in 1930 to Hermann Huth, vice president of the German Vegetarian Federation (Deutsche Vegetarier-Bund).

He became a vegetarian for the first time in his life. "So I am living without fats, without meat, and without fish," he wrote in a letter in March 1954. But, I'm also feeling very well this way. Man does not appear to have been born to be a carnivore," it says.

In his late journals he wrote:

His mother played the piano well and wanted her son to play the violin, not only to instill in him a passion for music but also to help him integrate into German culture. Einstein started playing when he was 5 years old, according to conductor Leon Botstein. However, he didn't like it at the time.

He was discovered by Mozart's violin sonatas when he was 13 years old, whereupon he became enamored of Mozart's works and explored music more deeply. Einstein taught himself not to exercise "ever exercising systematically." "Love is a better teacher than a sense of obligation," he said. He was discovered by a school examiner in Aarau while playing Beethoven's violin sonatas at the age of 17. Afterward, the examiner wrote that his participation was "remarkable and revealing of a "great knowledge" of "great insight." Einstein "displayed a deep love of the music," the examiner writes, a feature that is in short supply. This student's music had a strange meaning.

From that time on, music played a pivotal and permanent part in Einstein's life. Although the prospect of becoming a professional musician was not on his mind at any time, among those with whom Einstein performed chamber music were a few specialists, including Kurt Appelbaum, and he performed for private audiences and friends. Although living in Bern, Zürich, and Berlin, among other things, chamber music was also a regular part of his social life. He is sometimes credited as the editor of Mozart's 1937 edition of the Köchel catalog of works; this version may have been made by Alfred Einstein, who may have been a distant cousin.

He visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he performed some of Beethoven and Mozart's works with members of the Zoellner Quartet in 1931 while working at the California Institute of Technology. As the young Juilliard Quartet visited him in Princeton, he played his violin with them, and the quartet was "impressed by Einstein's level of coordination and intonation."

Einstein suffered internal bleeding as a result of the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been treated surgically by Rudolph Nissen in 1948. He had the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance to honor Israel's seventh anniversary of the hospital, but he did not live to finish it.

"I want to go where I want," Einstein said. Artificially prolonging life is tasteless. I've done my part; it's time to move. "I will do it gracefully." He died in Princeton's University Medical Center by the age of 76 early the next morning, having continued to work until near the end.

During the autopsy, pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey extracted Einstein's brain for preservation without his family's consent, in the hopes that future neuroscience would be able to uncover what made Einstein so smart. Einstein's remains were cremated in Trenton, New Jersey, and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location.

J. Robert Oppenheimer, a nuclear physicist, outlined Einstein's image as a person in a memorial lecture delivered on December 13th, 1965: "He was almost entirely without innovation and entirely without worldliness." At any time childlike and tenacious, there was always a wonderful purity with him."

Einstein bequeathed his personal archives, library, and intellectual treasures to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel.

Scientific career

Einstein wrote hundreds of books and journals over his lifetime. More than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones have been published. Einstein's papers, which number more than 30,000 unique documents, were announced on December 5th, 2014, by universities and archives. Einstein's intellectual successes and ingenuity have made the term "Einstein" synonymous with "genius." In addition to the work he did by himself, he collaborated with other scientists on additional research, including Bose-Einstein's estimates, the Einstein refrigerator, and others.

The four papers are:

Einstein's first paper, published in 1900 to Annalen der Physik, was focused on capillary attraction. It was published in 1901 with the tag "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen," which translates to "Conclusions from the capillary phenomenon." Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to explain atomic phenomena from a scientific perspective. These papers were the basis for the 1905 Brownian paper, which showed that the Brownian movement can be interpreted as solid evidence that molecules exist. His study, which was conducted in 1903 and 1904, was mostly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena.

Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations by giving a study of the density gradients in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily, the density changes are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy based on density. At the critical point, the derivative is zero, triggering major shifts. The effect of density shifts is that the light of all wavelengths is dispersed, making the fluid appear milky white. Einstein likes this to Rayleigh scattering, which is what happens if the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue. Einstein derived quantitatively from a treatment of density fluctuations, and he explains how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering results from the atomistic constitution of matter.

"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies") by Einstein, "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper" ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies") was published on June 30, 1905, and it was published on September 26 of the same year. By making revisions to mechanics' laws, it solved contradictions between Maxwell's equations (the principles of electricity and magnetism) and Newtonian mechanics' laws. The effects of these changes are most apparent at high speeds (where objects are moving at speeds close to the speed of light). Einstein's special theory of relativity was the theory that was presented in this paper. There is evidence from Einstein's books that he worked with his first wife, Mileva Mari, on this project. The decision to publish only under his name seems to have been mutual, but the precise reason is uncertain.

When measured in the frame of a photo of a moving body, this paper predicted that a clock carried by a moving body would appear to slow down, and that the body itself would shrink in its direction of movement. This paper also argued that the prospect of a luminiferous aether, one of the first experimental entities in physics at the time, was superfluous.

Einstein's paper on mass-energy equivalence introduced E = mc2 as a result of his special relativity equations. Einstein's 1905 study on relativity was controversial for many years, but leading physicists, starting with Max Planck, have accepted it.

Einstein conceived special relativity in terms of kinematics (the study of moving bodies). Hermann Minkowski reinterpreted special relativity in geometric terms as a spacetime model in 1908. In his 1915 general theory of relativity, Einstein incorporated Minkowski's formalism.

Generally relativity (GR) is a model of gravitation that was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915. Mass attractivity between masses has been observed as a result of space and time warping by those masses, according to general relativity. General relativity has developed to become a key component of modern astrophysics. It provides the foundation for the current study of black holes, southwestern regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that no one can escape.

The cause for general relativity's growth, according to Einstein, was that the choice of inertial motions within special relativity was unsatisfactory, but a theory that started from the outset prefers no state of motion (even faster ones) seems more palatable. As a result, he published an article on acceleration in 1907 under special relativity. He argued that free fall is really inertial motion, and that special relativity rules must be followed for a free-falling observer. This argument is referred to as the equivalence principle. Einstein also predicted the phenomenon of gravitational time dilation, gravitational redshift, and deflection of light in the same essay.

Einstein's "On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light" in 1911, which increased on the 1907 study, in which he estimated the amount of light caused by massive bodies. In addition, the general relativity prediction could be experimentally verified for the first time.

Einstein predicted gravitational waves in the curvature of spacetime in 1916, propagating as waves, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. Gravitational waves are likely under general relativity due to their Lorentz invariance, which introduces the notion of a finite rate of propagation of gravity. Gravitational waves, on the other hand, are not present in Newtonian gravitation's theory of gravitation, which states that gravity's physical interactions are infinitely fast.

PSR B1913+16: The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves in the 1970s was aided by the observation of two closely orbiting neutron stars. They were emitting gravitational waves, which led to the depletion in their orbital period. Einstein's prediction was made on February 11, 2016, when LIGO's first observation of gravitational waves was observed on Earth on September 14, nearly a hundred years since the event.

Einstein became confused about the theory's gauge invariance when learning general relativity. He argued that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He stopped looking for fully covariant tensor equations and instead searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only.

The Entwurf ('draft') theory emerged in June 1913 as the result of these investigations. It was a sketch of a theory, less sophisticated and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by new gauge setting conditions. Einstein realized that the hole argument was inaccurate and abandoned the theory in November 1915.

Einstein introduced the general theory of relativity to the universe as a whole in 1917. He found that the general field equations predicted a cosmopolitan universe, whether decreasing or expanding. Einstein introduced the cosmological constant, a new term, to the field equations, in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, according to Einstein's interpretation of Mach's law in those years. This model was originally regarded as Einstein's static universe or Einstein's static universe.

Einstein's static universe model of the universe was replaced by the discovery of the nebulae by Edwin Hubble in 1929, and he created two new cosmos models, The Friedmann-Einstein universe of 1931 and the Einstein-de Sitter universe of 1932. Einstein discarded the cosmological constant in each of these models, saying that it was "in any case theoretically unsatisfactory."

Einstein is referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his "largest blunder," according to several Einstein biographies. Mario Livio, the astrophysicist, has recently cast doubt on this assertion, implying that it may have been exaggerated.

A team led by Irish physicist Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered evidence that, soon after learning of Hubble's theories of the nebulae's slowing, Einstein constructed a steady-state model of the universe. Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe in which the density of matter remains stable as a result of continuous creation of matter, a process he attributed to the cosmological constant. "I would like to draw my attention to a solution to equation (1) that can account for Hubbel's [sic] results, and in which the density remains constant over time." For the density to remain stable, new particles of matter must be continuously produced in the volume from space."

It's also likely that Einstein considered a steady-state model of the expanding universe many years before Hoyle, Bondi, and Gold. However, Einstein's steady-state scheme had a fundamental flaw, and he quickly dropped the plan.

General relativity is based on a dynamic spacetime, so it's difficult to decide how to measure the saved electricity and momentum. Theorem of Noether determines these quantities from a Lagrangian with translation invariance, but general covariance changes translation invariance into something like a gauge symmetry. For this reason, the tensor's prescriptions' energy and momentum generated within general relativity do not constitute a genuine tensor.

Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason: a gravitational field can be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy pseudotensor was, in fact, the best representation of the energy flux distribution in a gravitational field. This strategy has been echoed by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, among others, and has become common.

Erwin Schrödinger and others had a lot of concerns in 1917 about the use of non-covariant objects such as pseudotensors.

Einstein worked with Nathan Rosen in 1935 to develop a wormhole model, often called Einstein–Rosen bridges. In line with the paper's description, "Do Gravitational Fields Play a Major Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?" He wanted to model elementary particles with charge as a result of gravitational field equations. To create a bridge between two patches, these solutions were cut and pasted Schwarzschild black holes.

If one end of a wormhole was positively charged, the other end would have been deemed negative. Because of these properties, Einstein was led to believe that two particles and antiparticles could be described in this manner.

In order to generalize spinning point particles, the affine link must be broadened to include an antisymmetric component, which is the torsion. Einstein and Cartan made this conversion in the 1920s.

The general relativity doctrine has a fundamental rule: the Einstein field equations, which describe how space curves are represented. The geodesic equation, which describes how particles move, can be derived from Einstein's field equations.

Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a globular ball made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, will travel on a course determined by the Einstein field equations themselves, not by a new one. According to Einstein, the course of a singular solution, like a black hole, will be determined to be a geodesic from general relativity itself.

Einstein, Infeld, and Hoffmann designed pointlike objects without angular force, as well as Roy Kerr for spinning objects.

Einstein postulated that light itself is composed of localized particles in a 1905 paper (quanta). Both physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr, had almost unanimously dismissed Einstein's light quanta. This belief was only widely accepted in 1919, with Robert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect and the measurement of Compton scattering.

Einstein estimated that each wave of frequency f is related to a series of photons with a hf value, where Planck's constant is h. He doesn't say much more because he is unaware of how the particles are related to the wave. However, he does suggest that this hypothesis, as well as the photoelectric effect, would explain some experimental findings, particularly the photoelectric effect.

Einstein introduced a model of matter in 1907, where each atom in a lattice unit is a unique harmonic oscillator. Each atom oscillates independently in the Einstein model, resulting in a sequence of similarly spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be difficult, but he nevertheless suggested this theory because it was a convincing argument that quantum mechanics could solve the particular heat problem in classical mechanics. This model was improved by Peter Debye.

Quantum mechanics have widened in scope to include numerous aspects of life throughout the 1910s. After Ernest Rutherford demonstrated the nucleus and suggested that electrons orbit like planets, Niels Bohr was able to demonstrate that the discrete movement of electrons in atoms and the periodic table of elements.

Einstein influenced these changes by comparing them to Wilhelm Wien's 1898 arguments. Wien had demonstrated that the theory of adiabatic invariance of a thermal equilibrium state would allow all the blackbody curves of varying temperature to be extracted from one another by a simple shifting process. Einstein wrote in 1911 that the same adiabatic principle indicates that the quantity that is measured in any mechanical motion must be a adiabatic invariant. This adiabatic invariant was identified as the classical mechanics' action variable by Arnold Sommerfeld.

Einstein was given a model of a statistical model by Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose in 1924, based on a counting procedure that assumed that light could be thought of as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Bose's statistics were also applicable to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, according to Einstein, who submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the Zeitschrift for Physik. Einstein also wrote his own papers describing the model and its benefits, one of which was the Bose-Einstein condensate phenomenon, which indicates that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures. Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman's first experimental condensate was not born until 1995, using ultra-cooling equipment at the University of Colorado's Boulder's NIST–JILA laboratory. Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe any assembly of bosons' behaviors. In the Leiden University's library, Einstein's sketches for this project can be seen.

Despite the fact that Einstein was promoted to the second class of the Technical Examiner in 1906, he had not given up on academia. He became a Privatdozent at the University of Bern in 1908. Einstein wrote in "Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen and Strahlung" ("The Growth of our Views on Radiation"), on the quantification of light, and in a earlier 1909 paper, Max Planck's energy quanta must have a well-defined time and act in some respects as free, point-like particles. This paper introduced the photon theory (though Gilbert N. Lewis' name photon was introduced later in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave-particle duality in quantum mechanics. Einstein saw this wave-particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his assertion that physics needed a new, united foundation.

Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the possibility of zero-point energy in his "second quantum theory" in a series of experiments from 1911 to 1913. Einstein and his assistent Otto Stern were immediately attracted by this theory. They then compared the experimental results to the theoretical specific heat of hydrogen gas assuming that the energy of turning diatomic molecules contains zero points of energy. The figures were matched very well. However, they withdrew their assistance shortly after releasing the findings because they no longer had faith in the idea of zero-point energy.

Einstein wrote an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift in 1917 that suggested a sensational emission, the chemical process that allows for the maser and the laser, during his study on relativity. The absorption and emission of light would only be increased statistically by a factor of planck's distribution policy, according to this paper, if the diffusion of light into a mode with n photons would be increased statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was instrumental in the quantum mechanics development later in the period, since it was the first paper to demonstrate that the statistics of atomic transitions were governed by simple rules.

Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work and embraced his theories, which were dismissed with skepticism at first. Einstein proposed a wave equation for de Broglie waves in another major paper from this period, which Einstein characterized as the Hamilton–Jacobi equation of mechanics. Schrödinger's 1926 paper will inspire his 1926 paper.

Einstein's 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect was the first to develop quantum theory. Despite its acceptance by other physicists, he became dissatisfied with modern quantum mechanics, who believed it came after 1925. He was skeptical that quantum mechanics' randomness was more important than deterministic determinism, saying that God "is not playing at dice." He continued to believe that quantum mechanics was incomplete until the end of his life.

The Bohr–Einstein conversations were a public spat about quantum mechanics between Einstein and Niels Bohr, two of the company's founders, was a series of public debates concerning quantum mechanics. Their discussions are recalled due to their contributions to science's philosophy. Their discussions would influence quantum mechanics' later interpretations.

In 1935, Einstein returned to quantum mechanics, particularly to the question of its completeness, in a joint project with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen that spelled out what would become known as the EPR paradox. They considered two particles in a thought experiment, which had interacted in such a way that their properties were closely related. No matter how far the two particles were separated, a precise position measurement on one particle would result in identically detailed information of the other particle's position; likewise, a precise momentum measurement of one particle would result in equally precise information of the particle's velocity; without needing to disturb the other particle in any way.

There were two options in Einstein's interpretation of local realism: (1) either the other particle had these properties already established or (2) the process of measuring the first particle had a direct effect on the actual position and momentum of the second particle. Einstein turned down this second chance (popularly referred to as "spooky action at a distance").

Einstein's belief in local realism led him to believe that, although quantum mechanics was not correct, it must not be incomplete. However, local realism was shown to be inaccurate when the Aspect experiment of 1982 revealed Bell's theorem, which J. S. Bell had delineated in 1964. The findings of these and subsequent experiments show that quantum physics cannot be represented by any other version of physics in which "particles are considered unconnected independent classical-like entities, with each one being unable to communicate with the other after separation."

Despite Einstein's mistaken interpretation of local realism, his strong anticipation of the unique properties of its opposite, entangled quantum states has resulted in the EPR paper becoming one of the most influential papers published in Physical Review. It is considered a central figure in quantum information research.

Einstein continued to generalize his gravity theory by including electromagnetism as part of a single entity in his study. In a Scientific American article titled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravity," he referred to his "unified field theory" in 1950. Despite being lauded for his service, his attempts were ultimately fruitless. Interestingly, Einstein's unification program did not include the solid and poor nuclear forces, neither of which was well understood until many years after his death. Although mainstream physics long dismissed Einstein's attempts to unify, Einstein's work has fueled modern quests for a theory of everything, especially string theory, in which geometric fields appear in a unified quantum-mechanical environment.

Einstein also carried out other probes that were unsuccessful and ended. These include issues such as power, superconductivity, and other fields of study.

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